This article provides a high-level overview of approaches to ESG disclosures in the United States, European Union, and United Kingdom, noting the implications of these differences for investors and global businesses. Beyond shedding more light on the general ESG regulatory landscape under these regimes, the article explores the emerging ESG regulatory frameworks and policy drivers for ESG on both sides of the Atlantic and delves further into the implications of these differences to investors and multinational corporations, and why companies should care about these regulatory requirements and differences.

What Is ESG and ESG Disclosure?

ESG, which stands for “environmental, social, and governance,” refers to metrics often used by analysts to evaluate and vet the non-financial sustainability impact and social consciousness of companies. These metrics can impact a company’s risk profile and public perception—and, ultimately, the bottom line.

“ESG disclosures” are specific metrics used by organizations to report on their ESG performance and initiatives. ESG disclosures are generally broken into three categories:

1. Environmental: focuses on climate risks, emissions, energy efficiency, use of natural resources, pollution, and biodiversity
2. Social: focuses on human capital; labor regulations; diversity, equity, and inclusion (“ DEI”); safety; human rights; and community engagement
3. Governance: focuses on board diversity, corruption and bribery, corporate ethics and compliance, compensation policies, and risk tolerance

The terms ESG disclosure, sustainability report, and corporate social responsibility report are often used interchangeably.

Overview of the ESG Disclosure Regimes in the US

Federal Government

ESG disclosure in the United States (“US”) remains largely voluntary, except for the state of California’s requirements, discussed below. Governmental agencies and shareholder activists, however, continue to advocate for mandatory ESG disclosure. On March 6, 2024, the US Securities and Exchange Commission (“SEC”) adopted climate-related disclosure rules, two years after publishing the proposed rules.^[1] Shortly thereafter, on April 4, 2024, the SEC stayed its climate disclosure rules following a flurry of lawsuits by many stakeholders challenging both the rules and the SEC’s authority to issue the rules.^[2] A total of forty-three states (twenty-five against and eighteen advocating for the SEC rules as intervenors), as well as interest groups and trade associations, have since filed their petitions for review across different appellate courts, which are now consolidated in a multidistrict litigation in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit, dubbed Iowa v. Securities & Exchange Commission.^[3] Many opponents to the SEC’s ESG disclosure rules argue that following the Loper Bright decision^[4] by the US Supreme Court, which overturned the long-standing Chevron deference doctrine,^[5] the SEC lacks authority under federal securities laws to require corporate reporting of greenhouse gas emissions and other climate disclosures. This case remains in litigation and the rules are stayed. In any event, many experts believe that the Trump administration will abandon the rules.^[6]

State of California

In 2023, the state of California enacted Senate Bill 253 (“SB 253”) (“Climate Corporate Data Accountability Act”) and Senate Bill 261 (“SB 261”) (“Greenhouse Gases: Climate‐Related Financial Risk”) as part of the Climate Accountability Package. These laws are applicable to both public and private US companies “doing business” in California.^[7]

Senate Bill 219 (“SB 219”) was proposed and signed into law on September 27, 2024, amending the Climate Accountability Package by granting the California Air Resources Board (“CARB”) time and discretion to adopt implementing regulations and clarify answers to key implementation questions. While SB 219 extended CARB’s implementation date from January 1, 2025, to July 1, 2025, it does not offer an extension of the date of first reportable data under SB 253 for Scope 1 and Scope 2 emissions, which remains January 1, 2025.^[8] This means that US entities required to report under SB 253 may still have to collect Scopes 1 and 2 data for the first half of 2025 and include this in their first report to CARB, due by January 1, 2026.

On December 5, 2024, CARB issued an enforcement notice indicating its intent to exercise “discretion” in enforcing SB 253 during the first 2026 reporting cycle to allow companies additional time to implement data collection necessary to comply with the reporting requirements.

Shortly thereafter, on December 16, 2024, CARB issued a feedback solicitation inviting public comments on the implementation of SB 253 and SB 261, due by February 14, 2025.

Overview of the ESG Disclosure Regimes in the EU and the UK

Prior to 2023, only a relatively small number of large companies (referred to as public-interest entities)^[9] within the European Union (“EU”) were required to disclose ESG information under the Non-Financial Reporting Directive (“NFRD”), which came into force in December 2014. Work to substantially expand the scope of the NFRD started in 2017 on the heels of the 2016 COP21 Paris Agreement.^[10] In January 2023, the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (“CSRD”) came into force.^[11] However, please note our commentary below in relation to changes being proposed to the CSRD.

The CSRD is a mandatory ESG disclosure framework that modernizes and strengthens ESG reporting, requiring companies to report on environmental and social impacts, risks, and opportunities. EU member states were required to transpose the CSRD into domestic legislation by July 6, 2024; however, some countries have not yet done so (e.g., Germany, the Netherlands, and Spain).

The CSRD is broad and reaches a much wider group of companies compared to the NFRD, including some listed small and medium-sized enterprises (“SMEs”); certain non-EU issuers; and non-EU parent companies that generate over EUR 150 million in the EU and have at least one large subsidiary, public interest SME (see definition of public-interest entities in note 9), or branch in the EU. It requires businesses to report and disclose information on their societal and environmental impact and external sustainability factors affecting their operations.

A key feature of the CSRD is the double materiality assessment (“DMA”). The materiality of risks is reportable on two fronts: (1) how sustainability issues may affect the company and (2) how the company may impact people and the environment. The concept of DMA is yet to be established, with no proven or approved methodologies. This is causing some confusion in the marketplace and has been a source of criticism.

Implementation of the CSRD is a phased-in approach, with a rolling timeline (see figure 1). Companies already reporting under NFRD and large issuers with more than 500 employees are required to submit their ESG disclosures under CSRD in 2025, covering FY 2024. Other “large” EU companies or corporate groups (which includes those with two of the following three: (a) EUR 50 million+ in net turnover, (b) EUR 25 million+ in assets, and (c) 250+ employees) are required to submit initial ESG disclosures in 2026, covering FY 2025. Finally, all non-EU ultimate parent companies with “large” EU subsidiaries or operative branches are required to submit their initial ESG disclosures in 2029, covering FY 2028.

Figure 1. Timeline of Implementation of the CSRD.

Upstream of reporting, certain companies (including non-EU businesses) will be required to comply with the EU Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (“CSDDD”). This regulatory framework provides a process for mapping and conducting an in-depth assessment of a company’s operations and its chain of activities in order to (i) identify and prioritize actual and potential impacts based on the severity and likelihood of occurrence, (ii) prevent potential adverse impacts through an action plan with “reasonable and clearly defined” timelines, and (iii) end any actual adverse impacts by minimizing the impact with corrective action plans.^[12] The CSDDD has regulatory enforcement requirements and civil liability for violations.

It is important to note that on February 26, 2025, the European Commission published an “Omnibus package” (“Omnibus”)^[13] that seeks to simplify and streamline the requirements under the CSRD, the CSDDD, and the EU Taxonomy Regulation.

Some of the key proposed changes to CSRD include introducing a two-year delay to the reporting requirements applicable to “large” EU companies (from FY 2025 to FY 2027, with the first reports due in 2028 rather than 2026) and amending the thresholds applicable to in-scope EU companies (the reporting requirements would only apply to entities with more than one thousand employees either at the individual or group level and with either (a) EUR 50 million or more in net turnover or (b) EUR 25 million or more in assets). The Omnibus also proposes changes to the thresholds applicable to non-EU ultimate parent companies with “large” EU subsidiaries or operative branches.

The Omnibus also includes changes to the CSDDD, which affect scope and timeline of reporting, as well as potential removal of the requirement for EU member states to introduce civil liability for violations.

It is still unclear whether the changes proposed by the Omnibus will be adopted and what the timing of that would be, although the European Commission has invited EU institutions to treat this matter as a priority in light of the upcoming compliance deadlines under the CSRD.

In the United Kingdom (“UK”), there are also mandatory ESG reporting requirements that apply to certain in-scope companies. Since 2019, listed companies and large companies have been required to disclose energy use and carbon emissions under the Energy and Carbon Report Regulations 2018^[14] (“Streamlined Energy and Carbon Reporting” (“SECR”)). Listed companies are required to make disclosures aligned with the Task Force on Climate-Related Financial Disclosures framework. For accounting periods starting from April 2022, the Companies Act 2006 has required UK high-turnover companies with more than 500 employees, as well as traded insurance and banking companies, to produce a non-financial and sustainability information statement as part of their strategic report.

Looking ahead, the UK government is considering whether to introduce new sustainability disclosure requirements (“SDR”) on companies under a new reporting regime based on the standards issued by the International Sustainability Standards Board (“ISSB”), as well as a requirement for certain entities to publish climate transition plans. As these new regimes are still being developed, UK and non-UK entities will need to consider the extent to which any changes will affect their reporting obligations. Alongside the new disclosure requirements, the UK is also developing its own UK Taxonomy Framework for determining which activities can be considered “environmentally sustainable.”

Table 1, below, compares the main reporting frameworks in the EU and the UK.

Table 1. Main Reporting Frameworks in the EU and UK

Comparing the Disclosure Regimes in the US and the EU/UK

While the topics addressed by ESG regulations vary across regimes, they all include a focus on greenhouse gas emissions and other climate-related matters. It is important to recognize that reporting beyond climate topics—such as biodiversity, pollution, and certain workforce metrics—is also typically required. The reporting frameworks require a description of how risks are identified and managed, as well as corporate board oversight of identified risks. The identification of the applicable risks is fundamental and is an area where it is particularly essential to create a cross-functional approach.^[16]

The most significant differentiators between the US and EU/UK disclosure approaches are the “scope and scale” of disclosures and the definition of materiality.

First, with respect to scope and scale, the CSRD covers a broad range of topics and applies to a wide group of entities, including large companies, non-EU parents of large EU subsidiaries, and certain listed SMEs operating in the EU (although this may be subject to change if the Omnibus is adopted). On the other hand, the SEC’s disclosure rules focus specifically on climate-related information, particularly climate-related risks and Scope 1 and 2 emissions, and are applicable to both registered US domestic issuers and foreign issuers. Note, however, that California’s ESG reporting requirements also include Scope 3 emissions disclosure.

Second, the meaning of materiality in each regime is critical since it determines reportability. An incorrect interpretation or an invalid assessment of materiality could be very expensive and detrimental, triggering hefty fines and sanctions. The CSRD applies a double materiality approach, which requires companies to report on how sustainability issues affect their business and how their business impacts society and the environment. The SEC rules focus solely on financial materiality, requiring companies to disclose information that is material to investors. California’s laws require extensive emissions reporting irrespective of materiality.^[17]

Conclusion: The Transatlantic Divide and Why Global Companies Should Care

While ESG disclosures in the EU are mandatory, reporting in the US remains voluntary, with the exception of California’s requirements. As such, compliance with evolving ESG disclosure requirements will become more complex for global public companies. In particular, private equity funds and traditional energy players that have an increased interest in energy transition to meet stakeholder demands and regulatory changes will continue to wrestle with varying ESG reporting requirements. These critical interests are coupled with the challenges of addressing escalating climate change risks and supplying the world’s insatiable energy demand. The combination of these factors in a fast-paced business arena presents a ripe environment for ESG-related claims.^[18] With more disclosure requirements and a lack of standardization across global jurisdictions, it is likely that there will be more missteps. Noncompliance with the reporting requirements in the applicable jurisdiction(s) may be fatal to potential ventures, investment opportunities, and the public perception of involved parties.

Companies, advisers, funds, and counsel should carefully curate their reviews, vetting, and setting of ESG targets to ensure alignment with required ESG and sustainability reportable information across regimes, while at the same time ensuring alignment with other investment materials, offering documents, and annual reports. In addition, disclosures should be vetted by external experts and legal counsel to ensure consistent, reliable, and accurate reporting.

1. See Press Release, U.S. Sec. & Exch. Comm’n, SEC Adopts Rules to Enhance and Standardize Climate-Related Disclosures for Investors (Mar. 6, 2024). The SEC disclosure rules—aimed at reducing greenwashing, increasing transparency for investors, and standardizing and harmonizing reporting metrics across all industries—were intended to be effective beginning with the year ending December 31, 2025, and would require disclosure by public companies to include governance issues, risk management strategies, and financial implications of climate-related risks. ↑

2. See U.S. Sec. & Exch. Comm’n Order Issuing Stay, In re Enhancement and Standardization of Climate-Related Disclosures for Investors, File No. S7-10-22 (Apr. 4, 2024). The SEC disclosure rules were stayed in April 2024 following challenges by several states, investors, interest groups, and trade associations. ↑

3. No. 24-1522 (8th Cir. 2024). ↑

4. Loper Bright Enters. v. Raimondo, 144 S. Ct. 2244 (2024) (providing that courts should use their own judgment when interpreting ambiguity in laws and not rely on agency interpretations). ↑

5. Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Nat. Res. Def. Council, 467 U.S. 837 (1984) (providing that courts were to give deference to agencies where there was ambiguity in the law, as long as the interpretation was reasonable). This case has since been overturned. ↑

6. Tim Quinson, Trump Administration Seen as Likely to Dismantle ESG Rules, Bloomberg (Nov. 7, 2024). ↑

7. See S. 253, 2023 Leg., Reg. Sess. § 1(l) (Cal. 2023); S. 261, 2023 Leg., Reg. Sess. § 1(j) (Cal. 2023). Signed into law in 2023, SB 253 and SB 261 establish greenhouse gas emissions and climate-related financial risk reporting requirements for corporations that meet certain criteria. SB 253 (greenhouse gas emissions disclosure) tasks the California Air Resources Board (“CARB”) with promulgating regulations requiring US-based entities with $1 billion or more in annual revenue to report their greenhouse gas Scope 1 and Scope 2 emissions for 2025 by January 1, 2026, and Scope 3 emissions starting in 2027 for emissions for 2026. SB 261 (climate-related risks reporting) applies to companies with total annual revenues over $500 million and mandates disclosure of climate-related financial risks and measures for risk reduction. ↑

8. See S. 219, 2024 Leg., Reg. Sess. § 1(c) (Cal. 2024). SB 219 gives CARB six additional months to finalize its rules under SB 253, pushing the CARB implementation deadline to July 1, 2025. Additionally, SB 219 eliminates the filing fee requirement for corporations reporting their greenhouse gas emissions, gives CARB the option (but not the requirement) to contract with an outside organization to develop a program by which the required disclosures would be made public, and authorize any corporate disclosures to be consolidated at the parent company level. ↑

9. These are defined as EU entities with transferable securities admitted to trading on an EU-regulated market, certain credit institutions, insurance undertakings, or other entities designated as such by EU member states. ↑

10. The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change. It was adopted by 196 parties at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris on December 12, 2015, and entered into force on November 4, 2016. ↑

11. Directive (EU) 2022/2464 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 December 2022 Amending Regulation (EU) No 537/2014, Directive 2004/109/EC, Directive 2006/43/EC and Directive 2013/34/EU, as Regards Corporate Sustainability Reporting, 2022 O.J. (L 322) 15. ↑

12. Directive (EU) 2024/1760 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 on Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence and Amending Directive (EU) 2019/1937 and Regulation (EU) 2023/2859, arts. 10–11. ↑

13. Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council Amending Directives 2006/43/EC, 2013/34/EU, (EU) 2022/2464 and (EU) 2024/1760 as Regards Certain Corporate Sustainability Reporting and Due Diligence Requirements, COM (2025) 81 final (Feb. 26, 2025). ↑

14. The Companies (Directors’ Report) and Limited Liability Partnerships (Energy and Carbon Report) Regulations 2018, SI 2018/1115. ↑

15. Note that the SFDR only applies to certain asset managers and other financial market participants rather than corporate entities more generally. ↑

16. See Europe’s CSRD Is One of the Latest Global Disclosure Regulations Revolutionizing ESG Reporting, PwC (last visited Mar. 1, 2025). ↑

17. Ery Dimitrantzou, How California Rules Shape Global ESG Reporting, Cority (Nov. 15, 2024). ↑

18. Saijel Kishan, ESG Litigation over Social Issues Is Poised to Rise, Bloomberg (Feb. 23, 2022). ↑

By the end of 2025, more than half of the largest 30 U.S. accounting firms will have either sold an ownership stake or part of their business to private-equity investors, up from zero in 2020, said Allan Koltin, chief executive at advisory firm Koltin Consulting Group.

—Mark Maurer, “Private Equity’s Ties to Companies’ Auditors Have Never Been Closer. That Worries Some Regulators.”^[1]

Persistent market volatility, high inflation levels, and lack of investor confidence have challenged, among other things, mergers and acquisitions processes and the debt capital markets over the past few years. Private equity sponsors have responded in part by seeking to penetrate new sectors for platform acquisitions. Professional services firms have become one such target, driven by large profit margins, sustained growth, and strong cash flows. This article focuses on accounting firms, a subset of professional service providers and a popular target of sponsored investment via leveraged buyout (or “LBO”). As competition to acquire quality assets and accordingly, provide related financing, remains fierce, this article will discuss material considerations for lenders in connection with the financing of audit and accountancy businesses.

A Rising Trend

According to S&P Global, November 2024 “saw a surge” in private equity– and venture capital–backed transactions in the accounting and audit sector.^[2] In fact, in the period from October 1 through November 30, 2024, seven deals were done in the sector, compared to six deals for the entire fourth quarter of 2023.^[3] By way of further example, according to the Financial Times, in 2024 alone, Hellman & Friedman agreed to purchase a controlling portion of the equity interests in Baker Tilly; New Mountain Capital purchased the U.S. operations of Grant Thornton; Investcorp and PSP Investments purchased PKF O’Connor Davies; and a Centerbridge Partners–led consortium of investors purchased a majority of equity in Carr, Riggs & Ingram.^[4]

Attractive Targets

Accounting firms are attractive targets for private equity investment for several reasons. The “fragmented”^[5] character of the professional accounting industry presents consolidation opportunities as well as the potential to scale business, a hallmark of private equity’s investment thesis. Furthermore, private equity sponsors may be able to strategically acquire and roll up current and future targets, often centralizing shared services and functions, thereby lowering costs and maximizing profits, which, in turn, ultimately maximizes limited partner returns. Accounting firms’ business is also fairly reliable and stable, usually with predictable income streams and the potential to expand into advisory services to augment profits.^[6] Some industry observers predict private equity investment in the accounting sector may allow firms to deploy capital into new areas like enhanced technology and artificial intelligence, each of which theoretically might, consequently, promote consistency, efficiency, and lower costs.^[7]

Top Three Considerations for Lenders and Their Counsel

In light of popularity of accounting and audit firm acquisitions, we offer the following top three considerations for lenders considering financing the same: (1) structuring, (2) auditor independence and regulatory considerations, and (3) management services agreements (“MSAs”) and/or administrative services agreements (“ASAs”).

1. Structuring

The alternative practice structure is ideal for businesses looking for external investment. Firms governed by alternative practice structure regimes are typically split between the advisory arm (“AdvisoryCo”) and the accounting business (“AttestCo”). Under a credit facility, AdvisoryCo is usually the borrower and AttestCo is a non-guarantor restricted subsidiary. It is therefore crucial for lenders and their counsel to appreciate how transactions between AdvisoryCo and AttestCo are governed and what rights and restrictions apply to targets’ partners and/or employees.

Importantly, accounting firm employment and partnership agreements often contain non-compete, non-solicitation, mandatory retirement, and other similar restrictions on partners and employees. As alternative practice structures may vary from firm to firm, a thorough review of relevant partnership and employment agreements, operating agreements, and other governing documents should be undertaken—most crucially, the MSA and/or the ASA (discussed below).

2. Auditor Independence

Accounting firms are typically subject to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission’s (“SEC”) and Public Company Accounting Oversight Board’s auditor independence rules and other similar regulations. Due to the broad reach and scope of such rules, financing arrangements may impair independence. Company and sponsor’s counsel should conduct a thorough independence analysis and confirm no issues; lenders’ counsel should expressly inquire about this during legal diligence. Lenders should push for credit agreement representations and warranties to the effect that the financing transaction does not violate the SEC’s Rule 2-01 under Regulation S-X or other applicable laws, as it may be detrimental to the underlying financing to have AdvisoryCo deemed an “associated entity” of AttestCo.

3. MSAs/ASAs

Alternative practice structures and the two entity silos are governed via MSAs or ASAs. The MSA or ASA, as applicable, spells out the agreements between AdvisoryCo and AttestCo. For example, such agreements will provide that AttestCo provides only accounting services and that AdvisoryCo provides—importantly, for a fee—administrative and “back-office” services to AttestCo (think personnel management, information technology and other tech services, billing and accounts, and so on).

It is imperative that lenders and their counsel obtain, review, and understand the relevant MSA or ASA. Key focus areas of such review include the following:

• Fee for services: What is the scope of the fee and related services? When is such fee paid?
• Termination fee: To which party is it payable? Are there any exclusions to payment of such fee?

Because MSAs/ASAs are key strategic assets of AdvisoryCo borrowers, credit agreement provisions should be tailored accordingly. For example, lenders should consider appropriate representations and warranties as to the effectiveness of MSAs/ASAs, fulsome events of default for termination of MSAs/ASAs, and a covenant restricting modifications of MSAs/ASAs adverse to the interests of the lenders. Lenders may also wish to consider restrictions on transferring MSAs/ASAs outside the ring-fenced loan party group and include reporting requirements.

Conclusion

As accounting firm LBO financings become increasingly commonplace, the body of relevant credit documentation that may serve as precedent for future transactions is growing. Sponsors, wishing to preserve their forms and ensure consistency across their portfolio companies, may resist bespoke constructs. Yet, lenders must be wary of cookie-cutter approaches and not lose sight of the fact that accounting firms (and other professional services firms) are no ordinary targets. Credit documentation must be diligently negotiated and be grounded in a firm understanding of the often-complex corporate and partnership structures and complex web of regulations to which each unique accounting firm is subject.

1. Mark Maurer, Private Equity’s Ties to Companies’ Auditors Have Never Been Closer. That Worries Some Regulators, Wall St. J. (Oct. 30, 2024). ↑

2. Karl Angelo Vidal & Shambhavi Gupta, Fragmented Sector Lures Private Equity Investment into Accounting Firms, S&P Glob. (Dec. 4, 2024). ↑

3. Id. ↑

4. Antoine Gara & Stephen Foley, Private Equity Buyers Snap Up Two More US Accounting Firms, Fin. Times (Nov. 18, 2024). ↑

5. Vidal & Gupta, supra note 2. ↑

6. Sridhar Ramamoorti & Paul J. Herring, Private Equity Acquisitions of Accounting Firms, FEI.org (Dec. 9, 2024). ↑

7. Vidal & Gupta, supra note 2. ↑

Shortly following his inauguration in January, President Donald J. Trump signed a flurry of executive orders implementing a wide array of administration policies. One of the executive orders, entitled “Ending Illegal Discrimination and Restoring Merit-Based Opportunity” (“DEI EO”), is designed to ban both public- and private-sector programs encouraging diversity, equity, and inclusion (“DEI”). Another, entitled “Ending Radical and Wasteful Government DEI Programs and Preferencing” (“EJ EO”), terminates environmental justice programs within the executive branch and targets federal contractors and grant recipients that advance DEI and environmental justice by instructing each federal agency to “terminate, to the maximum extent allowed by law, all . . . ‘equity-related’ grants or contracts.”

Shortly following her confirmation by the U.S. Senate, on February 5, Attorney General Pam Bondi issued a pair of memoranda to U.S. Department of Justice (“DOJ”) personnel, directing the Department to eliminate internal practices related to DEI and environmental justice and directing various elements of the DOJ to “investigate, eliminate, and penalize” private companies and universities (including nonprofits) that have “illegal” DEI programs. She instructed DOJ officials to enforce federal civil rights laws to abandon what she called “illegal discrimination and preferences,” outlining strategies such as launching criminal and civil investigations. These directives were issued to implement the president’s earlier executive orders.

While the concepts of these executive orders and DOJ enforcement memoranda were not surprising, given widespread criticism of DEI and other programs considered “woke” by the political right, the text of the directives surprised many with their explicit mentions of private sector and nonprofit organizations, many of which have long-established programs dedicated to DEI efforts. Some others are organized with DEI as a central tenet or purpose. The new directives have raised many concerns among nonprofit executives about the legality of both legacy and emerging DEI efforts and the status of their organizations’ funding secured through federal grants, cooperative agreements, contracts, and loans.

At a minimum, these directives signal the administration’s intent to pressure private-sector organizations regarding their DEI practices. A more expansive view of them foreshadows an aggressive effort to challenge DEI programs through lawsuits and regulations targeting organizations perceived as ideological and political enemies of the current administration and its policies.

Of immediate concern to many nonprofit recipients of federal grants, cooperative agreements, and contracts are the requirements in the DEI EO for such recipients to affirmatively certify that their organization (i) “does not operate any programs promoting DEI that violate any applicable Federal anti-discrimination laws” and (ii) is in compliance with all federal anti-discrimination laws that are “material to the government’s payment decisions for purposes of” establishing federal False Claims Act liability.

Executive orders carry the force of law. They are legally binding and can be enforced, both within the executive branch and against other entities. Executive orders traditionally carry out existing powers of the president and implement existing law, rather than creating new law, and often dictate how the executive branch will operate by directing departments and agencies to carry out certain initiatives. Given the executive branch’s vast bureaucracy and spending, executive orders have traditionally been a powerful policymaking tool for presidents to test or implement new economic and social policy. Executive orders are subject to judicial review by federal courts and can be revoked by the sitting president (including successors).

DEI Executive Order

The January 21 DEI EO’s stated purpose is to end “pernicious discrimination.” It directs federal departments and agencies to terminate “all discriminatory and illegal” DEI programs and practices and declares that DEI programs and practices are illegal” and “dangerous.” Both the executive orders and the DOJ directives contain cursory citations to the federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the U.S. Supreme Court’s 2023 decision in Students for Fair Admissions, Inc. v. President and Fellows of Harvard College as supporting the conclusion that DEI programs, broadly speaking, are illegal.

Notably, the DEI EO and the DOJ directives also took aim at DEI efforts in the private sector, attempting to extend the order’s reach beyond the typical province of executive orders of federal agencies and federal award recipients. The DEI EO directed agency heads to “take all appropriate action” to “advance in the private sector the policy of individual initiative, excellence, and hard work.” The order directs federal agencies to submit recommendations for enforcement of civil rights laws, including by identifying “discriminatory DEI practitioners” and by recommending investigations and potential litigation related to DEI programs of “publicly traded corporations, large non-profit corporations or associations, foundations with assets of 500 million dollars or more, State and local bar and medical associations, and institutions of higher education with endowments over 1 billion dollars.” The explicit reference to nonprofit organizations and associations has generated concern among nonprofit and association executives, and a rush to evaluate whether any DEI practices could be considered “discriminatory.” One of the DOJ directives similarly directed DOJ’s Civil Rights Division to recommend enforcement actions and “other appropriate measures to encourage the private sector to end illegal discrimination and preferences.” Among the recommendations the attorney general requested are “proposals for criminal investigations and for up to nine potential civil compliance investigations.”

Environmental Justice Executive Order

Like the DEI EO, the EJ EO directs federal agencies to terminate federally funded DEI programs and initiatives—including through nonprofits that receive federal grants or contracts—and extends the culling to include agency efforts to promote environmental justice. The intent of the EJ EO seems to be to claw back parts of the Biden administration’s environmental regulations, as well as portions of the federal Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act and the Inflation Reduction Act that provided funding for environmental justice programs.

Although there is some clear overlap in the subject matter of the EJ EO and the DEI EO, the EJ EO goes further than the DEI EO by targeting federal contractors and grant recipients. It directs agencies to provide the White House Office of Management and Budget (“OMB”) with a list of federal contractors who have provided DEI training to federal agencies, as well as federal grantees who received federal funding “to provide or advance DEI, DEIA, or ‘environmental justice’” programs. Although the EJ EO does not direct that litigation or enforcement actions be taken against these grantees or contractors, the intent of the executive order seems clear: to achieve compliance with its goals by the mere threat of including these organizations on an administration list of supposed transgressors.

Also of note is that on January 27, OMB took the extreme step of “pausing” all federal grants, cooperative agreements, and loans, putting mission-driven nonprofits in critical areas—including public health, environmental protection, immigration, international development, and others—at risk of losing funding that they rely on to carry out their missions. While the administration reversed its “pause” shortly after its issuance, and multiple federal courts have since enjoined the action, the executive orders remain in full force and effect.

Related Litigation

On February 21, a federal judge in Maryland issued a nationwide preliminary injunction against portions of the DEI EO and EJ EO, ruling that portions of the orders were likely to violate the First Amendment’s Free Speech Clause because those portions constituted impermissible content and viewpoint discrimination. The injunction also found that portions of the executive orders were likely to violate the Fifth Amendment because they are unconstitutionally vague.

The trend in private litigation against private-sector DEI programs, which increased in the wake of Students for Fair Admissions, has continued following the president’s executive orders. As a recent example, on March 5, a nonprofit group called Do No Harm, a watchdog group that describes itself as mobilized around “protecting healthcare from the disastrous consequences of identity politics,” filed a complaint in federal district court against the nonprofit 501(c)(3) American Chemical Society (“ACS”), seeking to enjoin ACS from operating the ACS Scholars Program, a scholarship program for students from historically underrepresented groups in the chemical sciences. Only Black, Hispanic, and Indigenous American applicants are eligible for the scholarships. Do No Harm alleged that the program violated Section 1981 of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which prohibits discrimination on the basis of race in making and enforcing contracts. The suit also alleges violations of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, and national origin in programs that receive federal financial assistance. To that end, the suit claims that ACS’s federal tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) (due to the ability to receive tax-deductible charitable contributions) is a form of federal financial assistance that brings ACS’s scholarship program within the scope of Title VI. Note that the antidiscrimination reach of Title VI is not limited only to race and contracts and is in fact far broader.

Practical Considerations

Unfortunately, the DEI EO and the EJ EO do little to elaborate on what they view as “discriminatory” and “illegal.” Additionally, the EJ EO and DOJ directives somewhat obscure the consequences of being on an administration “list” of organizations providing DEI training or programming for the federal government, although the clear implication is the loss of federal funds. While both executive orders and the DOJ directives make oblique references to statutes and court decisions, they do not examine them in depth, nor do they indicate which elements of a DEI program would make it discriminatory or illegal, adding to the lack of clarity regarding the legal risk and the anxiety of nonprofit leaders. Recent administrative actions have been so broad as to imply that innocuous textual references to diverse groups are evidence of illegal activity prohibited by the executive orders. For instance, according to recent reporting, staff at the National Science Foundation (“NSF”) have reviewed thousands of active science research projects using a list of flagged keywords (such as “women,” “diversity,” “minority,” “institutional,” “historically,” and “socioeconomic,” among dozens of others), to determine if the projects include activities that violate the new executive orders. Scientists who receive NSF funding were already put on notice to cease any activities that do not comply with the executive orders. In this context, nonprofit executives who have concerns about the legality of DEI programs should consult experienced legal counsel to further examine their legal risk and discuss potential mitigation strategies.

Aside from concerns related to federal funding, many nonprofits are concerned that their federal tax-exempt status may be at risk due to DEI-related activities. Although there has not been any evidence of DOJ or the Internal Revenue Service (“IRS”) challenging nonprofit organizations’ federal tax exemptions on this basis, such concerns have been raised by claims made in private litigation framing 501(c)(3) tax-exempt status as a form of federal financial assistance, thus bringing such organizations under the ambit of Title VI of the federal Civil Rights Act of 1964, which has a much broader reach—with even more alarming adverse consequences—for these entities. Beyond this argument, it is not inconceivable that a “weaponized” IRS or DOJ could seek to revoke the tax-exempt status of any tax-exempt organization that it believes is primarily engaged in activities—such as “illegal DEI”— that it believes are contrary to public policy. There is some precedent in case law for such arguments. If the IRS and/or DOJ were to go down this path, the potential adverse implications for some tax-exempt organizations are sweeping.

Even in this time of uncertainty, there are several steps nonprofit executives can take to understand their legal risk related to DEI initiatives. These steps all require a degree of self-awareness of an organization’s values and culture, as well as a careful examination of organizational finances, legal risk, and public profile.

Know your values. Some nonprofits are organized for the specific purpose of supporting certain racial, ethnic, religious, or gender groups, or other groups, in a way that may be considered “DEI” by the Trump administration. For these organizations, there may be a direct conflict between their organizational purposes and the dictates of the executive orders and DOJ directives. Don’t be too quick to abandon a central tenet of your organization without careful consideration, but examine whether certain less drastic steps can be taken to mitigate risk. For instance, many nonprofits are scrubbing their public-facing websites to remove any DEI-related references.

Examine your funding streams. Organizations that do not rely on federal awards for their operations are much more insulated from these executive orders and potential DOJ enforcement than ones that do. If your organization does receive federal funds, and it has a constellation of subsidiaries and affiliates, identify which entity or entities house the federally funded programs and the DEI or environmental justice programs that put you at risk under the executive orders, and do what you can to insulate the other entities accordingly. Also, begin examining funding alternatives, such as private foundation grants, that may allow you to fulfill your mission and meet your funding needs.

Scrutinize your DEI initiatives. Take a hard look at your DEI-related initiatives to ensure that they are consistent with current law, and consult experienced legal counsel for assistance. The federal Civil Rights Act of 1964, mentioned in the DEI EO, is only one of the laws implicated by such programs. As discussed above, also very relevant is Section 1981 of the federal Civil Rights Act of 1866, which has been used to launch legal attacks on programs from nonprofits and other entities that restrict eligibility for certain grants, scholarships, fellowships, and other opportunities to certain races, among other protected characteristics. Other laws implicated could include state public accommodations laws and state education and employment laws. Several states have passed anti-DEI laws covering employment, state grants, and education that need to be taken into account, such as the Florida law that prohibits private nonprofit and other employers from providing any DEI-related training to their Florida-based employees. See our prior article on mitigating risks of DEIA programs for a more expansive discussion of these issues.

Assess your culture. Have a good understanding of the level of support for DEI-related initiatives within your nonprofit organization and among your members, donors, grantors, and other stakeholders. Understand your organization’s risk tolerance, budget, values, public profile, and ability to withstand legal challenges and the significant costs that often accompany them (some of which may not be covered by insurance). Be able to identify any potentially controversial programs as a way to anticipate legal and regulatory challenges, and consider what interim changes can be made in order to mitigate risk and make your organization less of a target in the current climate.

Most of the administration’s directives in this area (and others) are already the subject of legal challenges in the courts—some of which have found early success—but the fate of that litigation, much of which is likely to work its way up to the U.S. Supreme Court, is uncertain. While many legal experts believe that a number of the new directives are unlawful, relying on such presumptions can carry with it a high degree of risk.

Although the new administration’s actions have instilled fear and uncertainty in many in the nonprofit community, these early actions may prove to be the catalysts that encourage nonprofits to take necessary protective actions. The Trump administration has given nonprofit organizations an early opportunity to galvanize themselves against potential adverse legal and regulatory consequences. By taking early prophylactic steps against these threats, nonprofits will be better positioned to defend themselves for the next four years while maintaining progress toward their missions.

For more information, please contact the authors at [email protected] and [email protected].

The views expressed herein are solely those of the authors and are not necessarily those of the authors’ firm, the American Bar Association, or the Business Law Section.

The report of my death was an exaggeration.^[1]

On February 17, 2025,^[2] the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Texas, before which is pending the Smith v. U.S. Department of the Treasury dispute, lifted the preliminary injunction it issued January 7, 2025, against the Reporting Rules^[3] adopted pursuant to the Corporate Transparency Act (“CTA”),^[4] thereby clearing the way for enforcement of the CTA and its filing obligations. With that action, the last pending judicial barrier to broad enforcement of the CTA’s reporting obligations was lifted, and its general enforcement recommenced.

That was, however, far from the final development with respect to the implementation of the CTA. Rather, over the first weekend of March, the government and a variety of public officials, including the current chief executive of the United States, issued a series of pronouncements as to the CTA’s reach and enforcement that ultimately foreshadow the intention to abdicate much of its enforcement. The same week, another federal district court became the first to find that the CTA violates the Fourth Amendment right against unreasonable search and seizure.

The Smith Preliminary Injunction and the New March 21 Filing Deadline

To recap, as previously reviewed in detail,^[5] even while the nationwide preliminary injunction issued by the district court in Texas Top Cop Shop, Inc. v. McHenry (formerly Texas Top Cop Shop, Inc. v. Garland) (“TTCS”)^[6] was in effect and challenges thereto were proceeding, the Smith court issued a preliminary injunction against enforcement of the CTA, with that relief being restricted to the parties to the suit before the court, and a nationwide injunction against the Reporting Rules.^[7] On January 23, 2025, the Supreme Court lifted the TTCS preliminary injunction. In response to the government’s motion to stay the Smith preliminary injunction pending appeal,^[8] to which the plaintiffs filed a response,^[9] on February 18, 2025, the Smith court lifted its preliminary injunction as to both the CTA and the Reporting Rules.

In furtherance of the undertaking it made in its motion to stay the preliminary injunction pending appeal,^[10] the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (“FinCEN”) announced on February 18, 2025, that it was granting reporting companies until March 21, 2025, to bring current all outstanding filing obligations.^[11] Further, the directive as to the new filing deadline “bridges” the companies that would have fallen into any of the gaps that otherwise existed, an example being companies whose obligation to file an initial or an updated beneficial ownership information report (“BOIR”) would have fallen on February 18 or 19, 2025.

Under the Reporting Rules,^[12] reporting companies preexisting January 1, 2024, were afforded until “not later than” January 1, 2025, within which to file an initial BOIR.^[13] Companies created on or after January 1, 2024, and before January 1, 2025, were afforded ninety days within which to file an initial BOIR.^[14] For companies created on or after January 1, 2025, they are afforded thirty days within which to file an initial BOIR.^[15] Once a BOIR has been filed, a reporting company has thirty days within which to file an update as to any change in the submitted information.^[16]

Between the TTCS and Smith injunctions, except for a brief period while the TTCS injunction was stayed and until that stay was lifted, those deadlines were on hold from the December 3, 2024, granting of the TTCS preliminary injunction through the February 18, 2025, lifting of the Smith injunction. In that period, there arose filing deadlines for companies preexisting January 1, 2024; companies created on or after September 4, 2024; and updates to previously filed BOIRs.^[17]

Application of the March 21, 2025, Deadline

The examples below will help to understand how—in the face of these on-again, off-again injunctions and prior reporting periods for initial and updated BOIRs for companies created at various times—the new March 21 deadline was intended to apply. We use the phrase was intended to apply instead of will apply because shortly after the FinCEN Notice dated February 18 that instituted the March 21 deadline, FinCEN published a press release rescinding that deadline (see “And Then the Seventy-Two Hours of Mayhem,” below).

Examples of application of the March 21, 2025, deadline:

• ABC Inc. was created on September 4, 2024; its initial BOIR was due not later than December 3, 2024. That day, the TTCS preliminary injunction was issued, and no filing was made. That initial BOIR would have been due not later than March 21, 2025.
• XYZ LLC was created on December 31, 2022; its initial BOIR was due not later than January 1, 2025. With the TTCS preliminary injunction then in effect, no filing was made, and after it was lifted, no action was taken with regard to the Smith injunction. That initial BOIR would have been due not later than March 21, 2025.
• DEF LLC was created on December 31, 2024; its initial BOIR was due not later than March 31, 2025. The March 21, 2025, deadline is eighty days after its creation, and DEF would have been afforded the full ninety days of the Reporting Rules within which to file its initial BOIR.
• GHI Inc. was incorporated on January 1, 2025; its initial BOIR was due before January 31, 2025. However, as of that day, the Smith injunction was in place, and no action was taken. That initial BOIR would have been due not later than March 21, 2025.
• JKL Inc. was created on March 1, 2024, and filed its initial BOIR on May 1, 2024; that report identified Laura as a beneficial owner, a position she held as a senior officer of the company. On December 1, 2024, Laura resigned her position, and she ceased to have any relationship with the company; an updated BOIR was due by the end of the month. However, with the TTCS and then the Smith injunctions in place, no updated BOIR was filed. JKL would have had until March 21, 2025, to file an updated BOIR deleting any reference to Laura as a beneficial owner and otherwise updating the filed information to address, if applicable, her replacement in that role.
• MNO LLC was created on January 1, 2022; while its initial BOIR was not due until January 1, 2025, it filed its initial BOIR on June 1, 2024. On November 15, 2024, a senior officer of the LLC resigned and ceased to be a beneficial owner of MNO. The company was due to file an updated BOIR not later than December 15, 2024. With the TTCS injunction in place, no filing was made. That BOIR update would have been due not later than March 21, 2025.

“True, Correct, and Complete”

It bears noting that simply filing a report that was held in abeyance during the period that the CTA and Reporting Rules were enjoined is not necessarily the entirety of a company’s obligations. A BOIR must, as of its filing, be “true, correct, and complete.”^[18] Counsel and other filers who are “sitting on” filings need to confirm that the information set forth therein remains accurate as of the filing date. If inaccurate information is inadvertently filed, there is a ninety-day period within which to file a correction.^[19]

Another application of the requirement that a BOIR be “true, correct, and complete” is that certain changes in already-filed information that took place during the pendency of either or both of the TTCS and Smith preliminary injunctions will never be reported. For example, assume VWX Corp. was created on December 1, 2024, and its initial BOIR would have been due not later than March 1, 2025. Its initial president was Mary, but she resigned from that role on December 31, 2024. Keith took that role on an interim basis on January 1, 2025, and resigned on March 15, 2025, when Laura took the reins. When VWX would have filed its initial BOIR on March 21, it would have identified Laura as a beneficial owner (senior officer) and not reported either Mary or Keith as having been a senior officer of the company.

The Other CTA Cases

Of course, TTCS and Smith are not the only cases in which the constitutionality of the CTA and the Reporting Rules has been challenged; they are simply the cases in which injunctive relief in favor of a group larger than the plaintiffs has been granted. While both TTCS and Smith continue, there are a number of other disputes at various stages.

National Small Business United

The “granddaddy” of suits challenging the CTA is National Small Business United v. Yellen; on March 1, 2024, the district court found that the CTA is unconstitutional as outside the bounds of Congress’s authority under the Commerce Clause.^[20] That decision was appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit, and oral argument was held on September 27, 2024. As of this writing, no decision has been delivered. Recently both the government and the plaintiffs delivered letters to the Eleventh Circuit requesting the court to rule in favor of their respective positions.^[21]

Firestone and Community Ass’ns Institute

In both Firestone v. Yellen and Community Ass’ns Institute v. Yellen, the respective district courts denied requests for a preliminary injunction against the enforcement of the CTA.^[22] These decisions are on appeal to, respectively, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth and the Fourth Circuits.

Hotze

In Hotze v. U.S. Department of the Treasury, the third of the CTA lawsuits pending in Texas, the district court denied the plaintiffs’ request for a preliminary injunction in part because the TTCS injunction was at the time already in place.^[23] As the TTCS and Smith injunctions were seriatim lifted, the plaintiffs returned to the Hotze court and restated their request for injunctive relief,^[24] efforts that have been (at least as of this writing) unavailing. On March 6, 2025, the Hotze court issued an order providing in part:

On March 2, 2025, the U.S. Department of the Treasury issued a statement that it will “not enforce any penalties or fines associated with the beneficial ownership information reporting rule under the existing regulatory deadlines,” and would further “not enforce any penalties or fines against U.S. citizens or domestic reporting companies or their beneficial owners after the forthcoming rule changes take effect.” Press Release, U.S. Dep’t Treasury, Treasury Department Announces Suspension of Enforcement of Corporate Transparency Act Against U.S. Citizens and Domestic Reporting Companies (Mar. 2, 2025), https://home.treasury.gov/news/pressreleases/sb0038. The statement also noted that the Treasury “will further be issuing a proposed rulemaking that will narrow the scope of the rule to foreign reporting companies only.” Id.

In light of the foregoing statement, the parties are ORDERED to submit a joint brief, not to exceed five double-spaced pages, addressing how the Treasury’s statement bears on the instant case on or before Friday, March 14, 2025.^[25]

Midwest Ass’n of Housing Cooperatives

In Midwest Ass’n of Housing Cooperatives v. Bessent, the plaintiffs seek a declaration that housing cooperatives are exempt from the CTA irrespective of their organizational structure.^[26] On November 26, 2024, a curious order was entered in this case. Subsequent to a status conference held to discuss matters including the Plaintiffs’ Emergency Motion for Declaratory Relief, or Alternatively, Preliminary Injunctive Relief,^[27] and responding to the government’s request to hold the case in abeyance pending the decision of the Eleventh Circuit in National Small Business United, the court agreed to the request for an abeyance “provided the government refrain from arresting, jailing, imprisoning, or imposing civil penalties against plaintiffs or individuals affiliated with plaintiffs for any violation of the statute during the period of abeyance.”^[28]

Boyle

In Boyle v. Bessent, on February 14, 2025, the district court found that the CTA is constitutional and within Congress’s authority under the Commerce Clause.^[29] However, in the course of its decision finding that the CTA was enacted within the scope of Congress’s authority under the Commerce Clause, the Boyle court made a number of observations as to the penalty provisions of the Reporting Rules, suggesting that those penalty provisions that are beyond the scope of the statute itself are unauthorized and without authority.^[30] The word suggesting rather than holding is important because the case may be made that the entirety of this discussion is dicta in that the Boyle court did not hold that the regulatory penalty provisions are invalid even as it upheld the validity of the CTA itself, and the legitimacy of those regulatory penalty provisions was not an element of the court’s determination as to the statute’s legitimacy.

Small Business Ass’n of Michigan

Then, in Small Business Ass’n of Michigan v. Yellen, on March 3, 2025, the district court struck down the CTA as an unconstitutional violation of the Fourth Amendment protection against unreasonable search and seizure.^[31] While this argument had been presented to other courts and either rejected or left undecided as unnecessary to rule upon,^[32] the Small Business Ass’n of Michigan court squarely addressed it and determined:

The CTA may have good intentions but the road it chooses to pursue them paves over all reasonable limits. The CTA’s reporting requirements reach indiscriminately across the smallest players in the economy to extract and archive a trove of personal data explicitly for future law enforcement purposes at an expected cost to the reporting players of almost $22 billion in the first year alone. The Fourth Amendment prohibits such an unreasonable search.^[33]

The court went on to write: “In the Court’s view, this massive collection of personally identifying data for law enforcement, costing providers billions of dollars, amounts to an unreasonable search in violation of the Fourth Amendment.”^[34] The relief granted is restricted to the parties to that action.^[35]

In a letter to the Eleventh Circuit in National Small Business United, the government argued that the Small Business Ass’n of Michigan decision is flawed, signaling that an appeal is likely:

We write to respond to plaintiffs’ letter regarding the district court’s decision in Small Business Ass’n of Michigan v. Bessent, No. 24-cv-314, 2025 WL 704287 (W.D. Mich. Mar. 3, 2025) (“SBAM”) and to inform this Court about recent regulatory developments. In SBAM, the Western District of Michigan held that the CTA is inconsistent with the Fourth Amendment and permanently enjoined the government from enforcing the statute against the plaintiffs there. For the reasons given in the government’s briefing in this case, see Reply Br. 17-23, that decision is incorrect. Notably, the district court failed to reconcile its decision with the large number of state and federal reporting requirements that have long been understood as raising no constitutional concern. And the SBAM decision is an outlier: multiple district courts have recognized, in rejecting preliminary injunction motions, that Fourth Amendment challenges to the CTA are unlikely to succeed, and the district court in this case did not reach plaintiffs’ Fourth Amendment claim. See Firestone v. U.S. Dep’t of Treasury, No. 3:24-cv-1034-SI, 2024 WL 4250192, *10 (D. Or. Sept. 20, 2024); Community Ass’ns Inst. v. U.S. Dep’t of Treasury, No. 1:24-cv-1597, 2024 WL 4571412, *8-9 (E.D. Va. Oct. 24, 2024).^[36] 

And Then the Seventy-Two Hours of Mayhem

All the back-and-forth of injunctions and stays, culminating in the March 21 deadline, was a whiplash of events—but then things got really weird.

February 27 FinCEN Press Release

On Thursday, February 27, 2025, after the close of business in Washington, D.C., FinCEN published the following press release:

FinCEN Not Issuing Fines or Penalties in Connection with Beneficial Ownership Information Reporting Deadlines

WASHINGTON––Today, FinCEN announced that it will not issue any fines or penalties or take any other enforcement actions against any companies based on any failure to file or update beneficial ownership information (BOI) reports pursuant to the Corporate Transparency Act by the current deadlines. No fines or penalties will be issued, and no enforcement actions will be taken, until a forthcoming interim final rule becomes effective and the new relevant due dates in the interim final rule have passed. This announcement continues Treasury’s commitment to reducing regulatory burden on businesses, as well as prioritizing under the Corporate Transparency Act reporting of BOI for those entities that pose the most significant law enforcement and national security risks.

No later than March 21, 2025, FinCEN intends to issue an interim final rule that extends BOI reporting deadlines, recognizing the need to provide new guidance and clarity as quickly as possible, while ensuring that BOI that is highly useful to important national security, intelligence, and law enforcement activities is reported.

FinCEN also intends to solicit public comment on potential revisions to existing BOI reporting requirements. FinCEN will consider those comments as part of a notice of proposed rulemaking anticipated to be issued later this year to minimize burden on small businesses while ensuring that BOI is highly useful to important national security, intelligence, and law enforcement activities, as well to determine what, if any, modifications to the deadlines referenced here should be considered.^[37]

The February 27 press release had the immediate effect of setting aside the previously announced March 21 deadline for bringing all filings current while signaling that an as-yet-undefined modification of the reporting regime would be detailed in a forthcoming (stated to be not later than March 21, 2025) “interim final rule.” In addition, while modifications of the existing regulatory scheme would be considered, not once but twice it was said that the view remained that “BOI is highly useful to important national security, intelligence, and law enforcement activities.” This seems entirely reasonable—the authors can easily list any number of changes to the Reporting Rules that would address problems thereunder but that would not impact the efficacy of the desired database.^[38]

March 2 Treasury Department Press Release

Then, on Sunday, March 2, 2025, the entire program was unsettled when the U.S. Department of the Treasury (not FinCEN) issued the following press release:

Treasury Department Announces Suspension of Enforcement of Corporate Transparency Act Against U.S. Citizens and Domestic Reporting Companies

The Treasury Department is announcing today that, with respect to the Corporate Transparency Act, not only will it not enforce any penalties or fines associated with the beneficial ownership information reporting rule under the existing regulatory deadlines, but it will further not enforce any penalties or fines against U.S. citizens or domestic reporting companies or their beneficial owners after the forthcoming rule changes take effect either. The Treasury Department will further be issuing a proposed rulemaking that will narrow the scope of the rule to foreign reporting companies only. Treasury takes this step in the interest of supporting hard-working American taxpayers and small businesses and ensuring that the rule is appropriately tailored to advance the public interest.

“This is a victory for common sense,” said U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Scott Bessent. “Today’s action is part of President Trump’s bold agenda to unleash American prosperity by reining in burdensome regulations, in particular for small businesses that are the backbone of the American economy.”^[39]

Even while this press release was published, the FinCEN website continued through at least the morning of Monday, March 10, 2025, to feature the February 18 FinCEN Notice setting the March 21 filing deadline, raising clear questions as to what is now the source for authoritative guidance as to the CTA and filing deadlines, if any.

Exactly how would be effected the “proposed rulemaking” pursuant to which the enforcement of the CTA would be “narrow[ed]” to only foreign reporting companies is unclear. At this point in time, it is unknown whether foreign reporting company will continue to have the same meaning as is ascribed by the CTA and the current Reporting Rules.^[40] Might it mean instead both an entity formed outside the United States and also a domestic organization with owners (however defined) who are not U.S. persons?^[41] If not, a major purpose of the CTA—namely circumscribing the use of domestic U.S.-formed entities for nefarious purposes—will be emasculated. In a March 10, 2025, letter penned by Senators Whitehouse and Grassley, they asked Secretary Bessent that and related questions, including:

We request that you provide us the legal basis for the Treasury Department’s policy decision to categorically suspend enforcement of the CTA’s reporting requirements for all U.S. citizens and domestic reporting companies. In addition, we request that you provide us with information about how you intend to satisfy the policy goals of the CTA. As part of your response, please address the following questions:

1. Has the Treasury Department followed or initiated the process required by the CTA to exclude an entity or class of entities from its reporting requirements?
2. What steps has Treasury taken to ensure that any change in the practice or rulemaking governing BOI reporting fulfills the law enforcement and national security purposes of the CTA?^[42]

A Statutory Scheme Upended

But there is a broader question—namely, how the Treasury Department and/or FinCEN can publish and apply regulations so at odds with the statutory system. The CTA applies its reporting requirements to “reporting companies,” a set comprised of “domestic reporting companies” and “foreign reporting companies.”^[43] Absent abject and intentional blindness to the statutory scheme, application of the CTA’s reporting requirements to only foreign reporting companies does more than substantial violence to the statutory scheme, one whose validity this administration has argued to various courts.^[44]

Further, it is not clear that there is a univocal message being conveyed by FinCEN and the Treasury Department—and even the White House. Nearly coincident with the publication of the Treasury Department press release, the current chief executive of the United States published a “Truth” on the Truth Social network:

Exciting news! The Treasury Department has announced that they are suspending all enforcement of the outrageous and invasive Beneficial Ownership Information (BOI) reporting requirement for U.S. Citizens. This Biden rule has been an absolute disaster for Small Businesses Nationwide. Furthermore, Treasury is now finalizing an Emergency Regulation to formally suspend this rule for American businesses. The economic menace of BOI reporting will soon be no more.^[45]

With a hat tip to Chip More^[46] for this formatting, the various messages convey the following:

Perhaps by the time this article is published the messages will be reconciled, and it will be clear that there is an adult in the room directing a clear modification of the CTA’s reporting regimen in a format that is consistent with the statute and may be relied upon by those who are advising clients on CTA compliance. For the practicing bar and the millions of companies both subject to and endeavoring to comply with the CTA, it should never have come to this. Regardless, all indications are that the government will continue to argue for the constitutionality of the CTA, irrespective of whether it is in its current or a modified form. For example, in a March 7, 2025, reply brief in TTCS, the government wrote:

The government’s recent announcement that it will “issu[e] a proposed rulemaking that will narrow the scope of the [reporting requirements] to foreign reporting companies only” and that it will not “enforce any penalties or fines against U.S. citizens or domestic reporting companies or their beneficial owners” underscores that an injunction is not warranted. Department of Treasury, Treasury Department Announces Suspension of Enforcement of Corporate Transparency Act Against U.S. Citizens and Domestic Reporting Companies (Mar. 2, 2025), https://perma.cc/73RD-HT6R. The government’s efforts to implement the CTA in a calibrated way do not justify plaintiffs’ request for an injunction stripping the government of authority to implement the statute at all.^[47]

What Does It All Mean?

As of now, the CTA is not dead; the various messages that have been released are consistent in promising that it will in some modified form remain in place for foreign entities, a set of filers that, going forward, may be defined differently from the definition with which we are already familiar. As for domestic entities and beneficial owners, the penalty provisions of the law will not be enforced—which leaves unresolved a huge number of questions, not all of which will be addressed in the forthcoming rules (interim or otherwise), including the following:

• What is the effect of not enforcing the penalties? There is a marked difference between no penalty and a penalty not enforced. Will the penalties set by the CTA (as contrasted with the penalty provisions of the Reporting Rules, as discussed above in the context of the Boyle decision) continue to accrue^[48] to the effect that a future administration may decide to enforce the penalties, particularly against an identified bad actor? Recall that, generally speaking, estoppel may not be asserted against the government.^[49] Against that uncertainty, what reserves should companies that do not make a voluntary BOIR filing set aside against the potential exposure, and how is this potential penalty to be treated in due diligence and future acquisitions?
• May attorneys, consistent with their ethical obligations, advise that the CTA may be ignored? In response to client inquiries to the effect “So I don’t have to do anything, right?,” attorneys are going to be challenged to explain the legal effect of a “no enforcement” declaration set forth in a press release vis-à-vis an existing statutory penalty. In the face of the obligation to properly advise clients in order for them to make informed decisions,^[50] attorneys are going to wrestle with the scope of the discussion and the recommended course of action.
• What will be the treatment going forward of the beneficial ownership information already in the CTA database? Attorneys and others have already been fielding the question of whether information filed in the database may be removed and whether the database will be deleted. As of this time, there is no mechanism by which filed information may be removed, and there has been no suggestion that the database will be “wiped.”^[51]
• If the CTA is invalid in the face of the Fourth Amendment, is reference to the database going to give rise to “fruit of the poisonous tree” defenses? This issue is well beyond the ken of the authors, each of whom practices or teaches in the area of business organization law and is without practical experience in the intricacies of the Fourth Amendment. That said, based upon an at best cursory review of the hornbook law, as an exclusionary rule, evidence derived from improper government action is excludable as evidence in a proceeding brought by the government.^[52] While there are exceptions to the principle, if the information in the CTA database is utilized in the course of an investigation, no doubt the defense will seek an exclusion based upon an allegation that the CTA’s database was created in violation of the Fourth Amendment.
• How will the database impact the CDD obligations of banks and financial institutions? The intention was that beginning in the spring of 2025, banks and other financial institutions, with customer consent, would be able to access the CTA database in order to discharge their customer due diligence (“know your customer”) (“CDD”) obligations. Whether this facility will have much, if any, utility with a significantly truncated database remains to be seen. If a particular financial institution desired to do so, presumably it could condition opening and maintaining an account upon the customer making a voluntary filing of a BOIR (with a contractual obligation to maintain its accuracy), which it would rely upon to satisfy the CDD obligation.^[53] In the absence of such a system, presumably banks and other financial institutions will continue to have direct CDD obligations that entail collecting and maintaining the necessary information. There may also be consideration of expanding the beneficial owner definitions of the extant CDD rules to more closely mimic those currently existing under the CTA and the Reporting Rules.
• How will CTA developments affect state beneficial ownership reporting systems? States have considered, and New York has adopted, a state-level reporting system similar in certain respects to the CTA.^[54] An analogous proposal is currently pending before the Massachusetts legislature.^[55] Whether the significant restriction of the federal CTA will either encourage or discourage the adoption of state-level equivalents remains to be seen. If the reasoning of Small Business Ass’n of Michigan is upheld on appeal (assuming there is an appeal), it may undercut the ability of a state to adopt such a reporting regimen.

In closing, we await word of the new regime promised by March 21.

1. Samuel Clemens (a/k/a Mark Twain). The quote is often misstated as “The reports of my death are greatly exaggerated.” ↑

2. While the order was dated February 17, 2025, a federal holiday, it was not electronically posted until February 18, 2025. ↑

3. The Reporting Rules appear at 31 C.F.R. §§ 1010.380(a) et seq. As noted, the “final” BOIR regulations were released in Beneficial Ownership Information Reporting Requirements, 87 Fed. Reg. 59,498 (Sept. 30, 2022). The final rules followed from Beneficial Ownership Information Reporting Requirements, 86 Fed. Reg. 69,920 (Dec. 8, 2021) (NPRM), which itself followed from Beneficial Ownership Information Reporting Requirements, 86 Fed. Reg. 17,557 (Apr. 5, 2021) (ANPR). Those “final” regulations detail certain due dates, amended by Beneficial Ownership Information Reporting Deadline Extension for Reporting Companies Created or Registered in 2024, 88 Fed. Reg. 66,730 (Sept. 28, 2023); supplemented with regard to the use of FinCEN identifiers by the release of Use of FinCEN Identifiers for Reporting Beneficial Ownership Information of Entities, 88 Fed. Reg. 76,995 (Nov. 8, 2023); and expanded with regard to the exemption for public utilities (31 C.F.R. § 1010.380(c)(2)(xvi)) in Update to the Public Utility Exemption Under the Beneficial Ownership Information Reporting Rule, 89 Fed. Reg. 83,782 (Oct. 18, 2024)—collectively, the “Reporting Rules.” ↑

4. 31 U.S.C. § 5336. For a review of the CTA generally, see Larry E. Ribstein, Robert R. Keatinge & Thomas E. Rutledge, Ribstein and Keatinge on Limited Liability Companies, at ch. 4A (Nov. 2024). ↑

5. Christina M. Houston, Robert R. Keatinge, Thomas E. Rutledge & James J. Wheaton, The Corporate Transparency Act Is Still on Pause, but Less So, Bus. L. Today (Feb. 6, 2025); Christina M. Houston, Robert R. Keatinge, Thomas E. Rutledge & James J. Wheaton, How FinCEN Stole Christmas: The Corporate Transparency Act, Year 1, Bus. L. Today (Jan. 13, 2025); see also Herrick K. Lidstone &Victoria Bantz, Ping Pong with the Corporate Transparency Act, Burns Figa & Will (Mar. 4, 2025). ↑

6. No. 4:24-CV-478, 2024 WL 5049220 (E.D. Tex. Dec. 5, 2024). ↑

7. Smith v. U.S. Dep’t of the Treasury, No. 6:24-cv-00336, 2025 WL 41924 (E.D. Tex. Jan. 7, 2025). ↑

8. Defendants’ Motion for Stay Pending Appeal, Smith, No. 6:24-cv-336 (Doc. No. 33). ↑

9. Plaintiffs’ Response to Motion for Stay Pending Appeal, Smith, No. 6:24-cv-336 (Doc. No. 35). ↑

10. Defendants’ Motion for Stay Pending Appeal, Smith, No. 6:24-cv-336, at 1 (“If the stay is granted, the Department of the Treasury’s Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) intends to extend the Corporate Transparency Act (CTA) compliance deadline for thirty days. During that period, FinCEN will assess whether it is appropriate to modify the CTA’s reporting requirements to alleviate the burden on low-risk entities while prioritizing enforcement to address the most significant risks to U.S. national security. Staying the grant of preliminary relief will help facilitate that process.”); id. at 6 (“As a matter of policy, Treasury continues to assess the potential burden of the Final Rule. If this Court grants the stay, FinCEN intends to announce that it will extend the compliance deadline for thirty days. During that period, FinCEN intends to assess its potential options to prioritize reporting for those entities that pose the most significant national security risks while providing relief to lower-risk entities and, if warranted, amending the Final Rule. The existence of the § 705 stay of the Final Rule should not be permitted to frustrate Treasury’s efforts to implement the extant Final Rule or to modify it, as warranted.”). ↑

11. See FinCEN Notice, FinCEN Extends Beneficial Ownership Information Reporting Deadline by 30 Days; Announces Intention to Revise Reporting Rule (Feb. 18, 2025) (FIN-2025-CTA1), which provides:

    WASHINGTON, D.C. — With the February 18, 2025, decision by the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Texas in Smith, et al. v. U.S. Department of the Treasury, et al., 6:24-cv-00336 (E.D. Tex.), beneficial ownership information (BOI) reporting requirements under the Corporate Transparency Act (CTA) are once again back in effect. However, because the Department of the Treasury (Treasury) recognizes that reporting companies may need additional time to comply with their BOI reporting obligations, FinCEN is generally extending the deadline 30 calendar days from February 19, 2025, for most companies.

    Notably, in keeping with Treasury’s commitment to reducing regulatory burden on businesses, during this 30-day period FinCEN will assess its options to further modify deadlines, while prioritizing reporting for those entities that pose the most significant national security risks. FinCEN also intends to initiate a process this year to revise the BOI reporting rule to reduce burden for lower-risk entities, including many U.S. small businesses.

    Updated Deadlines

    • For the vast majority of reporting companies, the new deadline to file an initial, updated, and/or corrected BOI report is now March 21, 2025. FinCEN will provide an update before then of any further modification of this deadline, recognizing that reporting companies may need additional time to comply with their BOI reporting obligations once this update is provided.
    • Reporting companies that were previously given a reporting deadline later than the March 21, 2025 deadline must file their initial BOI report by that later deadline. For example, if a company’s reporting deadline is in April 2025 because it qualifies for certain disaster relief extensions, it should follow the April deadline, not the March deadline.
    • As indicated in the alert titled “Notice Regarding National Small Business United v. Yellen, No. 5:22-cv-01448 (N.D. Ala.)”, Plaintiffs in National Small Business United v. Yellen, No. 5:22-cv01448 (N.D. Ala.)—namely, Isaac Winkles, reporting companies for which Isaac Winkles is the beneficial owner or applicant, the National Small Business Association, and members of the National Small Business Association (as of March 1, 2024)—are not currently required to report their beneficial ownership information to FinCEN at this time.

    Reporting companies can report their beneficial ownership information directly to FinCEN, free of charge, using FinCEN’s E-Filing system available at https://boiefiling.fincen.gov. More information is available at fincen.gov/boi. ↑

12. This summation relates to a domestic reporting company; equivalent requirements apply as to foreign reporting companies first registered in the relevant time period. ↑

13. 31 C.F.R. § 1010.380(a)(1)(i). ↑

14. Id. § 1010.380(a)(1)(i)(A). ↑

15. Id. § 1010.380(a)(1)(i)(B). ↑

16. Id. § 1010.380(a)(2)(i). ↑

17. Not considered herein are certain federal disaster zone declarations for which additional time has been afforded for CTA submissions. ↑

18. 31 C.F.R. § 1010.380(b) (“Each [BOIR] shall be filed with FinCEN in the form and manner that FinCEN shall prescribe in the forms and instructions for such report or application, and each person filing such report or application shall certify that the report or application is true, correct, and complete.” (emphasis added)). ↑

19. Id. § 1010.380(a)(3). ↑

20. Nat’l Small Bus. United v. Yellen, 721 F. Supp. 3d 1260 (N.D. Ala. 2024), appeal filed, Nat’l Small Bus. United v. U.S. Dep’t of the Treasury, No. 24-10736 (11th Cir. Mar. 11, 2024). ↑

21. Feb. 21, 2025, Letter from the Government, Nat’l Small Bus. United, No. 24-10736 (Doc. No. 109-1); Feb. 24, 2025, Letter from the Plaintiffs, Nat’l Small Bus. United, No. 24-10736 (Doc. No. 110-1). ↑

22. Firestone v. Yellen, No. 3:24-cv-1034-SI, 2024 WL 4250192 (D. Or. Sept. 20, 2024), appeal filed, No. 24-6979 (9th Cir. Nov. 19, 2024); Cmty. Ass’ns Inst. v. Yellen, No. 1:24-cv-1597, 2024 WL 4571412 (E.D. Va. Oct. 24, 2024), appeal filed, No. 24-2118 (4th Cir. Nov. 27, 2024); see also Firestone, No. 3:24-cv-1034-SI, 2024 WL 5159198 (D. Or. Dec. 18, 2024) (denying injunctive relief pending appeal). ↑

23. Hotze v. U.S. Dep’t of the Treasury, No. 2:24-cv-00210-Z (N.D. Tex. Dec. 30, 2024) (order denying preliminary injunction). ↑

24. Plaintiffs’ Brief in Support of Their Renewed Expedited Motion for Preliminary Injunction, Hotze, No. 2:24-cv-00210-Z (Feb. 24, 2025) (Doc. No. 44-1). ↑

25. Order Setting Deadline/Hearing, Hotze, No. 2:24-cv-00210-Z (Doc. No. 46). ↑

26. Midwest Ass’n of Hous. Coops. v. Bessent, No. 2:24-cv-12949 (E.D. Mich. filed Nov. 5, 2024). ↑

27. Plaintiffs’ Emergency Motion for Declaratory Relief, or Alternatively, Preliminary Injunctive Relief, Midwest Ass’n of Hous. Coops., No. 2:24-cv-12949 (Doc. No. 17). ↑

28. Order Regarding Plaintiff’s Emergency Motion for Declaratory Relief, or Alternatively, Preliminary Injunctive Relief, Midwest Ass’n of Hous. Coops., No. 2:24-cv-12949 (Doc. No. 26). ↑

29. Boyle v. Bessent, __ F. Supp. 3d__, 2025 WL 509519 (D. Me. Feb. 14, 2025). ↑

30. See id. ↑

31. Small Bus. Ass’n of Mich. v. Bessent, ___ F. Supp. 3d ___, 2025 WL 704287 (Mar. 3, 2025). ↑

32. See, e.g., Firestone v. Yellen, No. 3:24-cv-1034-SI, 2024 WL 4250192, at *10–11 (D. Or. Sept. 20, 2024), appeal filed, No. 24-6979 (9th Cir. Nov. 19, 2024); Cmty. Ass’ns Inst. v. Yellen, No. 1:24-cv-1597, 2024 WL 4571412, at *9 (E.D. Va. Oct. 24, 2024), appeal filed, No. 24-2118 (4th Cir. Nov. 27, 2024). ↑

33. Small Bus. Ass’n of Mich., 2025 WL 704287, at *1. ↑

34. Id. at *5. ↑

35. See id. at *1 (“The Court now addresses the Fourth Amendment issues for the parties in the case and concludes that Plaintiffs are entitled to judgment as a matter of law declaring the CTA Reporting Rules a violation of the Fourth Amendment and enjoining operation of the CTA as to Plaintiffs and their members in the case.”). ↑

36. Mar. 7, 2025, Letter from the Government, Nat’l Small Bus. United v. U.S. Dep’t of the Treasury, No. 24-10736 (11th Cir. Mar. 11, 2024) (Doc. No. 112). ↑

37. Press Release, Fin. Crimes Enf’t Network, FinCEN Not Issuing Fines or Penalties in Connection with Beneficial Ownership Information Reporting Deadlines (Feb. 27, 2025). The reference to the “Treasury’s commitment to reducing regulatory burden on businesses” was a link to the February 18, 2025, FinCEN Notice (see note 11). ↑

38. See, e.g., Robert R. Keatinge & Thomas E. Rutledge, Impossible Things: Compliance with the Corporate Transparency Act When Beneficial Owners or Company Applicants Are Nonresponsive, Bus. L. Today (Dec. 16, 2024). Additional recommendations might include a mechanism for reporting that a beneficial owner does not have and is not in a position to acquire any of the required forms of identification and permitting members of a “group,” as defined in section 414 of the Internal Revenue Code, to aggregate employee counts for purposes of satisfying the large operating company exemption set forth at 31 C.F.R. § 1010.380(c)(2)(xxi)(A). ↑

39. Press Release, U.S. Dep’t of the Treasury, Treasury Department Announces Suspension of Enforcement of Corporate Transparency Act Against U.S. Citizens and Domestic Reporting Companies (Mar. 2, 2025). ↑

40. See 31 U.S.C. § 5336(a)(11)(A); 31 C.F.R. § 1010.380(c)(1)(ii). ↑

41. See 31 C.F.R. § 1010.380(f)(10) (definition of United States person). ↑

42. See Letter from Senators Sheldon Whitehouse and Charles E. Grassley to Scott Bessent, U.S. Sec’y of Treasury (Mar. 10, 2025). ↑

43. See 31 U.S.C. § 5336(a)(11)(A) (definition of reporting company). ↑

44. See also note 42 and accompanying text. ↑

45. Current U.S. chief executive, Truth Soc. (Mar. 2, 2025, 9:20 p.m. EST). ↑

46. Associate at Alston & Bird in Washington, D.C. ↑

47. See Plaintiffs’ Request for an Injunction, Tex. Top Cop Shop, Inc. v. Bondi, No. 24-40792 (5th Cir. Mar. 11, 2024) (Doc. No. 301). ↑

48. Recall that the statutory $500 per diem civil penalty (31 U.S.C. § 5336((h)(1)) has been adjusted for inflation to be $606 per day. See Houston et al., The Corporate Transparency Act Is Still on Pause, supra note 5, at n.25. ↑

49. See, e.g., Deborah H. Eisen, Schweiker v. Hansen: Equitable Estoppel Against the Government, 67 Cornell L. Rev. 609 (1982) (“Traditionally, courts have refused to apply [estoppel] against the government, holding that ‘erroneous, unauthorized, or illegal acts or advice’ of government agents are insufficient bases for estoppel.”) (citations omitted); Fred Ansell, Unauthorized Conduct of Government Agents: A Restrictive Rule of Equitable Estoppel Against the Government, 53 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1026, 1027 (1986) (“Although the Court has not categorically stated that equitable estoppel will never be applied against the government, it has consistently and without exception reversed lower court decisions estopping the government in such circumstances.”); see also Dep’t of Just., Civil Resource Manual § 209 (last visited Mar. 5, 2025):

    The general rule is that the federal government may not be equitably estopped from enforcing public laws, even though private parties may suffer hardship as a result in particular cases. Office of Personnel Management v. Richmond, 496 U.S. 414 (1990); Heckler v. Community Health Services of Crawford County, Inc., 467 U.S. 51 (1984); INS v. Miranda, 459 U.S. 14 (1982); Schweiker v. Hansen, 450 U.S. 785 (1981); Federal Crop Ins. Corp. v. Merrill, 332 U.S. 380 (1947). No decision of the Supreme Court holds that equitable estoppel lies against the government in any circumstance. However, in several instances the court has expressly declined to determine whether the government could be estopped in a case involving serious affirmative misconduct by government employees. See, e.g., Heckler v. Community Health Services, supra; INS v. Miranda, supra. ↑

50. See, e.g., Ky. S. Ct. Rule 3.130(1.4)(b) (“A lawyer shall explain a matter to the extent reasonably necessary to permit the client to make informed decisions regarding the representation.”); see also, e.g., Ky. S. Ct. Rule 3.130(1.1) (“A lawyer shall provide competent representation to a client. Competent representation requires the legal knowledge, skill, thoroughness and preparation reasonably necessary for the representation.”). ↑

51. According to Alan Stachura and Maria Perez-Hodges of Wolters Kluwer, CT Corporation, FinCEN has reported that of the 15.5 million initial or updated BOIRs received by March 12, 2025, 6.4 million were filed after December 3, 2024 (the date on which the first injunction in the progression of hiatuses that have postponed the obligation to make initial BOIR filings was issued), and five hundred thousand of them were filed after February 28, 2025 (the day after the FinCEN announcement that effectively delayed the March 21, 2025 deadline and a few days before the Treasury press release indicating that that the requirement that domestic companies and individuals file initial and updated BOIRs from domestic companies and individuals will be eliminated). These numbers demonstrate two things. First, that irrespective of the former January 1, 2025, required filing date (which had been announced in November 2022) for the estimated 32 million reporting companies that existed before January 1, 2024, less than a third (considerably less, taking into account that a significant percentage of the 9.1 million BOIRs may have been filed for companies that were created or registered in 2024), had filed. Second, that many companies, perhaps frustrated by the on-again/off-again status of the CTA, had determined to go ahead and file a BOIR notwithstanding the delayed effective date and the advice of many professionals to prepare to file, but hold off on filing, until the final status of the CTA became clear. ↑

52. See also Nardone v. United States, 308 U.S. 338 (1939). ↑

53. Likely such a contractual requirement to comply with a filing obligation in order to open an account would satisfy the determination made in Small Business Ass’n of Michigan, but that would need to be litigated in order to have any certainty. ↑

54. As to the New York statute, see, e.g., Ribstein et al., supra note 4, § 4A:35. Washington, D.C. has a statute that is currently in effect. Id. ↑

55. See H. 3566, 193d Gen. Ct. (Mass. 2023–24). ↑

This is the third installment in the Year in Governance Series from the In-House Subcommittee of the ABA Business Law Section’s Corporate Governance Committee. Each month, the series will share key tips on a different corporate governance topic. To get involved in the Corporate Governance Committee, please visit the committee’s webpage.

A message from Kathy Jaffari: “As Chair of the Corporate Governance Committee, I would like to extend my sincere appreciation to the authors for this publication. The Corporate Governance Committee has ongoing opportunities for writing and volunteering with various projects, whether it’s an article you want to publish or a CLE that you want to present. Our Committee is dedicated to helping you promote informative resources for corporate governance practitioners. You may contact me at [email protected] to get involved.”

Boards are dynamic, and having a reasonable level of director turnover is healthy and expected. Regular board evaluation and succession planning are essential and complementary processes to maintain a board that is relevant and effective over time. Taking a strategic approach and a long-term view can also protect against block turnover, which can be disruptive to board effectiveness.

1. Strategy drives board composition. A company’s regularly refreshed strategy should determine what skills and capabilities need to be represented on the board. Some skill requirements are (or are becoming) universally essential (e.g., financial, executive leadership, and technology experience). Some may be critical depending on company strategy (e.g., regulatory, geopolitical, digital, M&A, or industry expertise). The list of desired skills and experience should be refreshed periodically and should be a metric against which board composition is assessed, ultimately driving future recruitment.
2. Get full board buy-in. It is important that all directors understand and support the “skills matrix” and how its elements are assessed (e.g., how much experience is required to substantiate that a director has a particular qualification). Such buy-in is critical if use of the matrix might result in a long-serving director not being renominated because their qualifications are no longer a high priority. Be clear with directors that substantiation criteria will be applied rigorously and that it is not expected that directors will “check all boxes.”
3. Design board evaluation to maximize its value. Practice varies in how board evaluations are conducted—whether in writing, such as via a portal; through an interview led by, for example, the lead director, the general counsel, or an outside advisor; or through a combination of written responses and interviews. Consider which approach would elicit the most candid and useful input from directors. What is appropriate in normal times might be different from what is appropriate in times of transition or crisis. It is important that directors trust the evaluation process, which includes knowing who has access to the results and how the results are used.
4. Evaluate the board comprehensively. Beyond director qualifications, the board evaluation should examine board structure (including committee structure), composition, leadership, agenda relevance, communication, meeting conduct, quality of materials, quality of discussions, cognitive diversity, and other factors relevant to whether the board is functioning well to support and oversee the company. It is a good idea to have an activism advisor critically assess the board’s vulnerability to an activist asserting that the board is deficient.
5. Individual director evaluations are important. Even if a director brings important skills and experience, if they do not participate constructively, the company is not best served. Individual director evaluations provide a structure for peer directors to provide feedback on one another. Care should be taken to design and use these evaluations in a way that does not create vulnerabilities or discord. With universal proxy, activists can target individual directors for replacement. This makes rigorous evaluations even more important, but activists’ work is made easier if they’re able to access records of critical feedback on targeted directors, particularly if no action was taken to address the criticism.
6. Track planned turnover. Many companies have term or age limits on director service. It is good to track planned retirement dates when planning for committee rotations, committee leadership changes, and board needs for essential skills or qualifications that might be lost when directors retire. In addition, think through scenarios for different directors departing at different times; this helps avoid a gap in committee or leadership coverage.
7. Anticipate unplanned turnover. For various reasons, directors might leave the board in advance of mandatory retirement. Some such departures can be anticipated via candid conversations among directors, whereas other departures might be unexpected. At least annually, the chair or lead director should inquire about the tenure goals of each director so that those individual goals can be incorporated into succession planning.
8. Plan ahead for committee composition and leadership as well as board leadership. Strong leadership at both the committee and board level is essential to overall board effectiveness. Refreshment planning should consider succession in key leadership roles as well as periodic rotation of committee service for all directors. Candid conversations with directors about their leadership and committee assignment interests helps avoid surprise or misunderstanding. Be cognizant of director independence requirements for certain committees when planning.
9. Leverage outside advisors. Search firms can be valuable resources for identifying future directors with particular skills and capabilities, and they have access to word-of-mouth information about how candidates conduct themselves in the boardroom. Since recruitment can take time, it may be helpful to have external experts help you stay current on potential candidates. To go one step further, companies can keep a “bench” of candidates that have already been interviewed and are ready to step in if the need arises.
10. Be flexible. The “supply” market for board candidates is as dynamic as the “demand” market. If a well-qualified director becomes available, it might be wise to increase board size to bring them aboard ahead of when the need arises, particularly if a subsequent vacancy is foreseen.

The views expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and not their respective employers, firms or clients.

In the past several years, the rise of mass arbitration has transformed the landscape of dispute resolution, reshaping how consumers and other individuals attempt to exert pressure on companies collectively. A mass arbitration is where many individual claimants use the same or coordinated counsel to bring individual arbitrations against a company based on identical or similar facts. Mass arbitration is not inherently improper but has in recent years been subject to gamesmanship, as some lawyers have sought to leverage the arbitration filing fees that businesses must pay.

Here’s how this has worked: Claimants’ lawyers solicit and enroll thousands of clients, typically through an online marketing process. They then file (or threaten to file) all the arbitrations simultaneously, triggering the target company’s immediate obligation to pay significant up-front fees. The goal has been to pressure companies to settle, notwithstanding the merits of the underlying claims. Because the settlement pressure increases with the number of filed or threatened claims, there is a powerful incentive for claimants’ lawyers to focus on the quantity of claims without meaningful regard to their quality.

Arbitration providers, such as the American Arbitration Association (“AAA”) and JAMS, did not have rules and fee schedules tailored for mass arbitration when it first became popular. These providers have since adapted to manage the influx of mass arbitrations, including by implementing new rules, procedures, and fee schedules aimed at resolving mass arbitrations more efficiently and mitigating strategies that some claimants’ lawyers have employed to coerce large settlements. In this article, we discuss this transformation and how businesses that use arbitration agreements can mitigate the exposure resulting from mass arbitration.

Practical Example of How Up-Front Fees Can Be Coercive

We first consider the amount of up-front fees that a business would pay under arbitration rules that are not tailored to administer mass arbitrations to help drive home why these arbitrations can exert so much pressure on businesses. If consumers filed 1,000 arbitrations, under the AAA’s Consumer Arbitration Rules and its fee schedule, the business’s share of the nonrefundable filing fee would be $375,000 or $500,000 ($375 or $500 per case), and its share of the nonrefundable case management fee would be $1,400,000 or $1,775,000 ($1,400 or $1,775 per case), depending on the number of arbitrators. So, in total, the business would have to pay between $1,775,000 and $2,275,000 in up-front fees—that is, before an arbitrator is even seated (see table 1 below). The claimant’s filing fees are also significant but pale in comparison to the business’s fees. In any event, claimants sometimes argue that the business is responsible for paying the claimants’ share of filing fees under contract or other theories.

Table 1. AAA Consumer Arbitration Rules: Distribution of Up-Front Arbitration Fees

AAA’s New Mass Arbitration Rules

The AAA recently issued Mass Arbitration Supplementary Rules, which apply to any mass arbitrations filed after January 2024.^[1] The rules apply when twenty-five or more similar arbitration demands are filed, regardless of whether the cases are filed simultaneously. A notable feature of these rules is aimed at requiring claimants’ counsel to more thoroughly vet clients and their claims before filing a mass arbitration. Lawyers have sometimes filed cases on behalf of claimants without sufficient proof that the claimants entered into an arbitration agreement.^[2] And observers have reported that claimants are sometimes fictitious, and their claims are duplicative.^[3]

Affirmation of Truthful Information and Appointment of Process Arbitrators

The AAA’s new rules impose barriers to these practices. First, claimants’ counsel filing a mass arbitration must “include an affirmation that the information provided for each individual case is true and correct to the best of the [lawyer’s] knowledge.”^[4] Lawyers who violate this duty could be subject to Rule 11–type sanctions. Second, the new rules allow the AAA to appoint a “process arbitrator” to resolve administrative issues after the payment of an initiation fee of $11,250.^[5] As discussed more below, under the new rules, no matter how many arbitrations are filed, the initiation fee is the only up-front fee. The claimant’s share of the fee is $3,125, and the business’s share is $8,125.

The administrative matters that process arbitrators are authorized to decide include the following:

• whether the claimants complied with the AAA’s filing requirements, any contractually imposed filing requirements, or any conditions precedent under the parties’ contract;
• disputes regarding payment of administrative fees, arbitrator compensation, and expenses;
• whether particular cases should be excluded from the mass arbitration;
• the “merits arbitrator” selection process for the individual arbitrations;
• if the cases should proceed in small claims court instead of arbitration;
• whether the merits arbitrators should hold a hearing or decide the disputes based on written submissions (called a “documents-only proceeding”);
• what rules should apply in the arbitration;
• the location of hearings by the merits arbitrators; and
• other nonmerits issues affecting case administration, such as the way arbitration should proceed to a hearing.^[6]

Process arbitrators are also empowered to decide fact-specific disputes for individual arbitrations, such as whether the allegations in a demand fall within the scope of an arbitration agreement. A process arbitrator deciding these issues is required to issue a reasoned decision, which binds the merits arbitrators absent an abuse of discretion by the process arbitrator. The business must compensate the process arbitrators at their published hourly rates.

Mediation

The AAA’s new rules require that the parties initiate a global mediation of the mass arbitration under the AAA mediation rules within 120 days after the AAA’s confirmation that the claimants meet the AAA filing requirements. The AAA administratively appoints the mediator unless the parties agree on one. While the rules allow any party to unilaterally opt out of mediation, the AAA may still appoint a mediator to facilitate discussions between the parties on processes to resolve the cases more efficiently. Indeed, the applicability section of the new rules encourages parties to agree to “processes for the efficient resolution of those cases.”^[7] As we discuss below, one option is the use of a “bellwether” process like multidistrict litigation (“MDL”), and a mediation after a resolution of the “test” arbitrations.

New Fee Schedule

As noted above, the AAA replaced filing fees with a flat $11,250 initiation fee. This fee remains constant regardless of how many cases are included in a mass arbitration (see table 2 below).

Table 2. New AAA Mass Arbitration Rules: Distribution of Initiation Fee

The AAA also eliminated the case management fee. Instead, the parties are now responsible for what the AAA calls a “per case fee” for any case that proceeds past the process arbitrator’s review or otherwise survives the initiation stage. As shown in table 3 below, the per case fee starts at $125 for claimants and $325 for businesses; the fees decrease as the number of arbitrations increases. The initiation fee is credited toward the per case fees.

Table 3. New AAA Mass Arbitration Rules: Per Case Fees

The AAA also charges an “arbitrator appointment fee” for any case that proceeds to appointing a merits arbitrator. The fee is $50 per case for the claimants and $450 per case for the business if the AAA appoints the arbitrator, or $75 per case for the claimants and $600 per case for the business if a list-and-rank process is used by the parties to select the arbitrator.

The merits arbitrators are paid $300 per hour in consumer cases, and they are compensated at their normal hourly rates in employment cases. In prior fee schedules, merits arbitrators received a flat fee of $2,500 per day for a hearing and $1,500 for documents-only cases. The AAA typically charges the arbitrator compensation to the business based on the merits arbitrator’s estimated study and hearing hours after the arbitrator holds a scheduling conference.

The last fee that the AAA charges is what it calls a “final fee.” The AAA bills this fee to the business when an evidentiary hearing is scheduled or the final submission date for a documents-only proceeding is set. This fee is $600 per case in consumer cases and $750 per case in employment cases.

The fees for each case are shown in table 4 below.

Table 4. New AAA Mass Arbitration Rules: Arbitrator Appointment Fee, Final Fee, and Merits and Process Arbitrator Fees

While the AAA’s new rules mitigate a business’s exposure, its changes do not entirely eliminate the significant costs to litigate mass arbitrations. Assume, for example, that a process arbitrator’s fee is $500 per hour and that it will take twenty hours to administer the mass arbitration. Also assume that the process arbitrator determines that 500 arbitrations should proceed past initiation stage, the parties agree that the mass arbitration will proceed with the AAA appointing merits arbitrators in batches of fifty arbitrations, and that each merits arbitrator estimates after the scheduling conference that it will take thirty hours to handle each case. For starters, the costs that the business incurs before any of the first fifty cases go to hearing could reach nearly $50,000: the initiation fee is $8,125, so the per case fee for the fifty cases is $8,125 (when accounting for the credit from the initiation fee); the arbitrator appointment fee for fifty cases is $22,500; and the process arbitrator fee is $10,000. The price to administer all 500 cases in this scenario if all of them go to hearing (adding in the final fees and the total arbitrator compensation) could be over $5 million. This amount, of course, does not include attorneys’ fees.

Other Arbitration Administrators’ Rules

Shortly after the AAA adopted its new rules, JAMS issued its new Mass Arbitration Procedures and Guidelines and fee schedule, effective May 2024. The JAMS rules apply when seventy-five or more individual claimants file against the same party or related parties and if those claimants are represented by either the same law firm or law firms acting in coordination. Unlike the AAA rules, the JAMS rules only apply where the procedures are expressly adopted in a pre- or post-dispute agreement.

However, like the AAA rules, the JAMS rules contain procedures that appear directed at lawyers filing inappropriate demands. Particularly, the JAMS rules require that claimants’ counsel submit an arbitration agreement for each claimant; that the demand include the first and last name, the physical address, and the email address of each claimant; and that each demand “be accompanied by a sworn declaration from counsel averring that the information in the [d]emand is true and correct to the best of the representative’s knowledge.”^[8]

The JAMS rules also authorize the provider to designate a “process administrator” to hear and determine preliminary and administrative matters, making it possible for businesses to challenge baseless demands at the outset of the arbitration.^[9] The only fee that the parties must pay at the outset, no matter how many cases are filed, is a single, nonrefundable filing fee of $7,500, up to $2,500 of which the claimant may be required to pay. Before this change, JAMS charged filing fees on a per-case basis, which allowed claimants’ counsel the potential to leverage the fees.

Process administrators are empowered to decide the following:

• whether the parties have met the applicable filing requirements;
• whether any conditions precedent have been met and, if not, how they can be met;
• which demands should be included in the mass arbitration;
• which rules apply to the proceedings;
• whether to batch, consolidate, or otherwise group the arbitrations or claims—whether for purposes of discovery, arbitrator appointments, merits hearings, or otherwise;
• the location of the merits hearings; and
• any other nonmerits issues affecting case administration.^[10]

The process administrator, as with the AAA, may also make administrative determinations based on the specific facts of an arbitration. Such administrative determinations must be included in a decision containing the reasoning for the determination.

In addition to the filing fee discussed above, the business must pay the process administrator’s hourly rate. The business is also responsible for paying an “appointment fee” for any arbitration that survives the process administrator’s review or is otherwise deemed administratively appropriate. The appointment fee is $2,000 for two-party cases and $3,500 for cases with three or more parties. Notably different from the AAA fee schedule, the JAMS appointment fee is per appointment, not per case. This distinction is important from a cost-savings perspective because merits arbitrators often decide a group of cases.

Finally, the business must pay a “case management fee” equal to 13 percent of the arbitrator’s estimated professional fees. The JAMS fees are shown in table 5 below.

Table 5. New JAMS Mass Arbitration Rules: Fees

In sum, while JAMS’s new fee schedule significantly reduces fees assessed up front, the fees for a mass arbitration can still be substantial because the business must pay professional fees for the process administrator and merits arbitrator, as well as case management fees assessed at a percentage of the overall professional fees. Also, unlike the AAA rules, the JAMS rules do not include a mediation requirement.

Notably, the AAA rules and the JAMS rules do not include bellwether procedures like some of the other arbitration providers, such as FedArb, New Era ADR, and CPR. For this process, the parties arbitrate a batch of test cases that they jointly select, with the other cases suspended and tolled by agreement. While certain arbitration providers include this process, AAA and JAMS anticipate that the parties will agree upon an efficient method to resolve the arbitrations post-dispute.

What Should Businesses Do?

Businesses should revisit their arbitration agreements, given these revisions to the providers’ mass arbitration–focused rules. If JAMS is the arbitration provider, the business needs to revise the arbitration agreement to expressly incorporate the Mass Arbitration Procedures and Guidelines as the procedures that govern any mass arbitration.

The business may also consider adding other procedures to the arbitration agreement to facilitate a mass arbitration’s fair and efficient resolution. For instance, a provision in the arbitration agreement requiring that claimants provide notice of a dispute and participate in an informal settlement conference before filing an arbitration could aid in resolving disputes quickly. The business may also consider bellwether procedures. As noted above, some arbitration providers have inserted similar processes into their mass arbitration procedures.

It is crucial, however, to consult counsel when making changes to an arbitration agreement as this is a complex task that requires a deep understanding of the constantly evolving law regarding the enforceability of arbitration agreements.

1. Am. Arb. Ass’n, Mass Arbitration Supplementary Rules (amended and effective Jan. 15, 2024). The Mass Arbitration Supplementary Rules were further revised in April 2024 to expand the types of disputes included. Am. Arb. Ass’n, Mass Arbitration Supplementary Rules (amended and effective Apr. 1, 2024); Press Release, Am. Arb. Ass’n, FAQ: AAA-ICDR® Mass Arbitration Rules Revisions (Apr. 1, 2024). ↑

2. See Wallrich v. Samsung Elecs. Am., Inc., 106 F.4th 609, 618–20 (7th Cir. 2024). ↑

3. See Letter from Jaime Huff, Vice President and Counsel, Public Policy, CJAC, to Enrique Zuniga, Public Trust Liaison, State Bar of California, Hoeg v. Samsung Elecs. Am., Inc., No. 1:23-cv-01951 (N.D. Ill. Aug. 28, 2023), ECF No. 44-4. ↑

4. Am. Arb. Ass’n, Mass Arbitration Supplementary Rules (amended and effective Apr. 1, 2024), at 4‑5. ↑

5. See id. § MA-6; Am. Arb. Ass’n, Consumer Mass Arbitration and Mediation Fee Schedule (amended and effective Jan. 15, 2024). ↑

6. Am. Arb. Ass’n, Mass Arbitration Supplementary Rules (amended and effective Apr. 1, 2024), at 6–7. ↑

7. Id. at 4. ↑

8. JAMS Arbitrators & Arb. Servs., Mass Arbitration Procedures and Guidelines, at procedure 2(c) (effective May 1, 2024). ↑

9. See id. at procedure 3. ↑

10. Id. at procedure 3. ↑

As we enter 2025, the Canadian mergers and acquisitions (“M&A”) landscape is poised for a dynamic year. Building on the momentum from a resurgent 2024, which saw the total value of deals rise by US$51.4 billion from 2023 despite a slight decrease in the number of transactions, dealmakers are optimistic about robust activity across sectors. However, this optimism is tempered by regulatory scrutiny, geopolitical uncertainty, and the need for agility in navigating complex transactions. For private equity (“PE”) firms, strategic buyers, and legal practitioners, 2025 presents opportunities and challenges that demand creativity, careful planning, and a nimble approach.

Macroeconomic Stability Fuels Confidence, Driving M&A Activity in 2025

The second half of 2024 saw significant macroeconomic improvements that set the stage for increased dealmaking in 2025.

Interest rate cuts by the Bank of Canada and the U.S. Federal Reserve stabilized financing conditions, making debt-fueled transactions more feasible. This helped narrow valuation gaps between buyers and sellers, which had hampered deal activity in prior years.

Currency dynamics will continue to influence cross-border transactions. A stronger U.S. dollar, particularly after Trump’s reelection, has made U.S. assets more expensive for Canadian buyers but has also increased the appeal of Canadian assets for U.S. investors, especially in sectors like critical minerals and technology.

While inflation eased in late 2024, its lingering effects on supply chains remain a key factor in valuation models, with buyers prioritizing resilience and reliability. These considerations are expected to shape transaction structures and pricing in 2025.

Sector-Specific Opportunities

Technology and AI

Technology continues to drive M&A activity, fueled by explosive growth in artificial intelligence (“AI”). Companies are racing to acquire AI capabilities, proprietary data, and supporting infrastructure such as data centers and energy grids to remain competitive. Both strategic buyers and PE firms are aggressively pursuing deals in this space, with AI-related acquisitions expected to dominate headlines in 2025.

Critical Minerals and Energy Transition

Canada’s leadership in critical minerals, such as lithium and copper, positions it as a global hub for M&A in the energy transition. These materials are essential for electric vehicle (“EV”) batteries and renewable energy projects, and federal incentives have only bolstered activity in this space. Geopolitical concerns over supply chain security are expected to keep the minerals sector a focal point for domestic and international investors.

Health Care and Biotech

The health-care sector offers a mix of opportunities and challenges. Pharmaceuticals and medical technology are poised for growth due to aging demographics and innovation, but PE involvement in health-care services continues to face scrutiny at the provincial level, reflecting ongoing regulatory challenges.

Energy and Natural Resources

Rising global energy demand, coupled with Canada’s abundant resources, is expected to drive consolidation in oil and gas. Liquefied natural gas infrastructure, particularly for European exports, presents significant growth opportunities. Meanwhile, Canada’s renewable energy projects remain attractive for sustainability-focused investors.

Private Equity’s Continued Dominance

PE firms are expected to play a pivotal role in Canada’s M&A activity in 2025. With record levels of dry powder (over $2.9 trillion globally), PE firms are under pressure to deploy capital. Platform acquisitions and add-ons will remain popular strategies, particularly in sectors like technology, health care, and infrastructure.

A backlog of portfolio companies held longer than usual is expected to spur a wave of PE exits. Firms are exploring creative solutions, such as dual-track processes (sale and initial public offering (“IPO”)) and partial exits, to meet investor demands for liquidity. The secondaries market, which has matured significantly in recent years, will also provide alternative pathways for PE firms to achieve liquidity.

Regulatory and Geopolitical Complexity

Heightened Scrutiny

Regulatory regimes will continue to pose challenges for dealmakers in 2025. Canada’s Competition Bureau has intensified scrutiny of large transactions, especially in concentrated industries like technology and critical minerals. This has lengthened deal timelines and raised execution costs, making early regulatory planning essential.

Globally, the proliferation of foreign direct investment regimes adds complexity to cross-border transactions. For deals involving sensitive sectors, such as semiconductors or cybersecurity, national security reviews will remain a significant hurdle.

The Impact of Trump’s Tariff Threats

The proposed 25 percent tariffs on Canadian imports by the Trump administration have introduced uncertainty into cross-border transactions. Many Canadian companies are pursuing defensive acquisitions in the United States to establish a local presence and to mitigate tariff risks, underscoring the need for adaptive strategies in the face of geopolitical challenges.

Valuation Trends and Creative Deal Structures

Valuation dynamics will play a central role in shaping Canadian M&A activity in 2025. High-growth sectors like technology, health care, and critical minerals will command premium valuations, while manufacturing may see more moderate activity. To address lingering uncertainties, dealmakers are leveraging innovative structures, including:

• Earnouts and contingent value rights. These tools allow buyers and sellers to bridge valuation gaps by tying payments to future performance.
• Deferred payments and minority equity rollovers. These structures align buyer and seller interests and mitigate risk.
• Representation and warranty insurance (“RWI”). RWI has become a mainstay in PE transactions, offering risk mitigation and streamlining negotiations.

The Role of Shareholder Activism

Shareholder activism is expected to intensify in 2025 as M&A activity accelerates. Activists are likely to pressure companies to pursue strategic transactions to unlock value, with cross-border activism on the rise. While environmental, social, and governance (“ESG”) issues may take a back seat to financial performance, activism aimed at spurring M&A will remain a key driver of activity.

Conclusion: Seizing the Opportunities of 2025

Canada’s M&A landscape in 2025 is set to offer significant opportunities for growth and transformation. Success will require creativity, agility, and thoughtful planning. Whether you’re a PE investor deploying capital, a strategic buyer pursuing transformative acquisitions, or a business navigating the complexities of cross-border transactions, preparation and adaptability will be key. Early engagement with regulators, robust due diligence, and innovative transaction structures will be critical to navigating the challenges ahead.

An intellectual property (“IP”) portfolio may include patent assets, copyrighted works, trademarks, and trade secrets. Understanding ownership, title, and cloud on title (e.g., third-party rights) of IP assets is of key importance in review and initial valuation of a target portfolio. In particular, understanding specific party ownership and any intervening third-party rights of patent assets and copyright assets is a focal point in IP due diligence. This understanding emanates from title searches through the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (“USPTO”) online database, examination of the chain of title via the USPTO Abstract of Title, and an audit of software assets for open source software (“OSS”) license terms.

Chain of Title

For U.S. patent applications and U.S. granted patents, the USPTO Assignment Recordation Branch has an online database, the Patent Assignment Search, that allows one to search for recorded title.^[1] The online search may be performed based on assignee name (e.g., employer company), assignor name (e.g., employee inventor), application number, patent number, application publication number, or reel/frame numbers (if known).

The search results in a listing called an “Abstract of Title” for the given patent asset (patent application or granted patent). The listing shows recorded conveyances or transfers of patent rights; security interests (liens) against the patent rights; and, if any, forgiveness of the security interests. The sequence (date order) of the recorded component parts in the Abstract of Title informs the searcher of the so-called title and any intervening third-party rights in the patent asset.

Under U.S. patent laws, patent rights begin with or originally vest in the named inventors of the corresponding patent application. Assignment of each inventor’s rights to an assignee (e.g., by employees under employment contract obligations to assign such rights to their employer corporate entity) is typically a first “leg” in the chain of title. A typical example of a second “leg” in the chain of title is a company-to-company assignment from the initial employer corporate entity to a merging or acquiring entity. Another example one may find in the Abstract of Title is recordal of a third party’s interest or intervening rights in the patent asset. Third-party rights may be in the form of a lien, mortgage, or other security interest where the subject patent or patent application is used as collateral to secure the loan or debt.

It is important that the conveyance documents (original assignments by inventors, merger/acquisition documents in pertinent part, loans with a security interest) be recorded at the USPTO Assignment Recordation Branch against each affected U.S. patent, U.S. patent application, and Patent Cooperation Treaty (“PCT”) international patent application. Such recordal provides notice to the public of one’s patent rights or interests therein. An interest in a patent asset may be statutorily void against a subsequent purchaser or mortgagee unless that interest is recorded at the USPTO within three months from the conveyance/assignment/grant of rights, or prior to the date of such subsequent purchase or mortgage.^[2]

OSS Licenses

OSS and OSS licenses provide another source of IP rights. Specifically, OSS licenses convey patent and copyright use rights to programmer users, end users, and third-party beneficiaries. In the due diligence review of a target IP portfolio, both the software assets created by the portfolio owner and the software assets used (imported) by the portfolio owner should be evaluated. The corresponding software code of these software assets should be audited to determine which OSS licenses apply and, in turn, what, if any, patent use rights exist per the OSS licenses. Note that there are likely patent use rights granted to the portfolio owner as well as patent use rights granted by the portfolio owner under the OSS licenses at play. The latter has potentially far-reaching impact (third-party beneficiary use rights) on the portfolio owner’s patent assets.

Conclusion

In conducting IP due diligence on a target portfolio, a thorough review and assessment of ownership and title should encompass the following steps:

1. Search USPTO assignment records. Review recorded title transfers in the USPTO Patent Assignment Search to identify any gaps in the chain of title during the diligence period (ensuring title changes were recorded within three months of assignment or prior to any subsequent transactions).
2. Examine the chain of title. Investigate the USPTO Abstract of Title to identify any third-party rights, such as security interests or liens, that could affect ownership.
3. Audit software assets for OSS license terms. Review open-source software licenses to determine if any terms grant third parties (or third-party beneficiaries) rights to patent assets in the target portfolio, potentially limiting the portfolio owner’s control over certain IP assets.

Given the increasing prevalence of OSS licensing, IP due diligence now requires additional scrutiny. Patent attorneys with expertise in both computer science and OSS licensing are uniquely equipped to address these complex issues. Their combined knowledge of software engineering and intellectual property law enables them to navigate the intricate and ever-evolving challenges in this space with greater precision and insight.

1. Patent Assignment Search, U.S. Patent & Trademark Off. (last visited Feb. 19, 2025). ↑

2. See 35 U.S.C. § 261. ↑

This article is Part VI of the Musings on Contracts series by Glenn D. West, which explores the unique contract law issues the author has been contemplating, some focused on the specifics of M&A practice, and some just random.

An asset purchase agreement (“APA”) contains the following survival clause:

Survival. Subject to the limitations and other provisions of this Agreement, the representation and warranties contained herein shall survive the Closing Date and shall remain in full force and effect until the date that is twelve (12) months from the Closing Date. None of the covenants or other agreements contained in this Agreement shall survive the Closing Date other than those which by their terms contemplate performance after the Closing Date, and each such surviving covenant and agreement shall survive the Closing for the period contemplated by its terms. Notwithstanding the foregoing, any claims asserted in good faith with reasonable specificity (to the extent known at such time) and in writing by notice from the non-breaching party to the breaching party prior to the expiration date of the applicable survival period shall not thereafter be barred by the expiration of such survival period and such claims shall survive until finally resolved.^[1]

Questions:

1. Assuming the buyer failed to provide notice of a claim prior to the closing, does this clause preclude the buyer from asserting a claim against the seller based upon an alleged breach by the seller of the preclosing covenant to conduct the target business in the ordinary course?
2. Assuming the buyer failed to give notice of a claim within twelve months after the closing, does this clause preclude the buyer from asserting a claim against the seller based upon an alleged breach of the seller’s contractual representation regarding the financial statements of the target business?

On its face the answer to both questions should be yes, right? Obviously, the preclosing covenant regarding operation of the target business did not contemplate performance by the seller after the closing date. If the financial statement representation only survived the closing for twelve months and no notice of an alleged breach had been given before that time, doesn’t that mean the seller is home free?

Well, if Delaware law applied, that may well be the correct answer (although best practices would still be to make the clause a lot clearer).^[2] But this particular APA was governed by Ohio law, not Delaware law—and a recent decision by a federal district court applying Ohio law, Bidwell Family Corp. v. Shape Corp.,^[3] declared that the answer to these questions was a definitive no!

Survival: Specificity Important to Get the Result You Want

Why? Well it’s pretty simple, really. Saying a covenant, representation, or warranty “survives” the closing for some specified period assumes that it would otherwise die absent that declaration of survival (and, more importantly, that the death of the covenant, representation, or warranty would also preclude bringing any remedies for its breach after that death even though the breach occurred while it was still alive). While there is Delaware law indicating that “[a]bsent contract language providing to the contrary, pre-closing representations about the acquired property interest become ineffective post-closing under the same rationale that causes representations about real property to merge with a warranty deed,”^[4] I am not sure I would place much reliance on that. Instead, if you want to be certain that all representations and warranties do not survive (and any attendant remedies for their prior breach are unavailable post-closing), I suggest saying so in unequivocal language, even in Delaware.

But when you do want certain representations and warranties (and perhaps covenants) not only to survive but also to restrict the available period during which an action can be commenced for their breach (to a period shorter than the otherwise applicable statute of limitations), does simply saying that they “survive” for a specific period do the trick?

Bidwell: “Unequivocal Language” Required to Create Contractual Statute of Limitations

In Bidwell, applying Ohio law, the court focused on the fact that the clause in question “imposed no independent time limit on when [the Buyer] could bring indemnifications claims.”^[5] According to the court, if the reference to “survival” was intended to actually constitute a “contractual statute of limitations,” then there needed to be “unequivocal language” to do so under Ohio law.^[6] Turning to the survival clause in the APA, the court said:

[T]he APA . . . lacks the “unequivocal language[]” . . . required under Ohio law to limit the time period in which [the Buyer] could make its indemnification claims. The [Sellers] argue that the APA does contain such unequivocal language, pointing to the final sentence of § 9.01 which provides that claims notified “prior to the expiration date of the applicable survival period shall not thereafter be barred by the expiration of such survival period and such claims shall survive until finally resolved.” . . . The only thing this sentence says unequivocally is that claims notified prior to expiration of the survival period will survive; while the inference could reasonably be drawn that claims not so notified will not survive, the contract does not “unequivocally” say so.^[7] 

Ouch!

But none of this should be new. We were talking about the need for more explicit language in our survival provisions at least a decade ago at M&A Committee meetings of the ABA’s Business Law Section.

Jurisdictional Variety and Unequivocal Language

There are apparently several states that require “unequivocal language” specifying that the survival provision is, in fact, an agreed contractual statute of limitations shorter than the otherwise applicable one.

While Delaware might be somewhat less fussy, I would caution that we should assume otherwise. Don’t forget that a Delaware court also declared that there were no “magic words” required to disclaim reliance on extra-contractual representations, but subsequent cases seem to require just that.^[8]

And don’t forget that even when choosing Delaware law to govern your agreement, a case filed in another state could well apply its statute of limitations to the claim (because statutes of limitations are procedural, not substantive, law).^[9] If that were to occur, would that forum court, even purporting to apply Delaware law to the agreement, interpret the survival clause consistent with Delaware’s apparently more liberal approach, or would the forum court instead require the “unequivocal language” required by forum law, absent explicit language in the choice of law clause choosing Delaware’s statutes of limitations as applicable?

Moreover, when you are selecting another jurisdiction’s law as the governing law of your acquisition agreement, please remember that several states have specific statutes that restrict the period for which a contractually shorter statute of limitations is permissible^[10]—so even unequivocal language will not always do the trick.

Examples of Effective Clauses

As examples of clauses that seem to do a fairly good job of addressing these issues (assuming there is no state law prohibition on shortening the otherwise applicable statute of limitations, and without suggesting that both examples couldn’t use some improvement), see the clauses below, which were plucked randomly from recently filed private company acquisition agreements.

Example of a “no survival” clause:

Section 10.1. Survival. The Parties, intending to modify any applicable statute of limitations, agree that, except in the case of claims solely against Seller for Fraud, (a) (i) the representations and warranties contained in this Agreement and in any certificate delivered hereunder and (ii) the covenants and agreements set forth herein that require performance at or prior to Closing, shall, in each of (i) and (ii), terminate effective as of the Closing without the need for any further action by any Person and shall not survive the Closing for any purpose whatsoever, and thereafter there shall be no liability or obligation on the part of, nor shall any claim be made by, any party or any of their respective Affiliates or Non-Parties in respect thereof, in connection therewith or related thereto and (b) the covenants and agreements set forth herein that require performance after the Closing shall survive in accordance with their respective terms, if any, until fully performed. This Article X shall survive the Closing. The Parties specifically and unambiguously intend that the survival periods that are set forth in this Section 10.1 shall replace any statute of limitations that would otherwise be applicable. Notwithstanding anything to the contrary contained in this Agreement, nothing in this Agreement, including the limitations on survival set forth in this Section 10.1 shall limit the rights of Buyer or any Affiliate thereof under the R&W Insurance Policy, which shall be solely governed by the rights as set forth thereunder.^[11]

Example of a “limited survival” clause (clause (b) being the important clarification):

9.1 Survival

(a) Subject to Section 9.1(b), each representation and warranty contained in ARTICLE IV and ARTICLE V (other than the Seller Fundamental Representations and the Purchaser Fundamental Representations) shall survive the Closing and shall terminate on the twelve (12) month anniversary of the Closing Date. The Specified Representations shall survive the Closing and remain in full force and effect until the expiration of the applicable statute of limitations (taking into account any extensions or waivers thereof), and the Seller Fundamental Representations and the Purchaser Fundamental Representations shall survive the Closing and remain in full force and effect indefinitely after the Closing Date; provided, that the expiration of any of the terms set out in this Section 9.1(a) shall not affect the rights of a Party to seek recovery of Losses arising out of Fraud. The covenants and agreements contained in this Agreement shall survive until performance in accordance with their terms.

(b) Notwithstanding anything herein to the contrary, the obligations to indemnify and hold harmless a Person pursuant to this ARTICLE IX in respect of a breach of representation or warranty, covenant or agreement shall terminate on the applicable survival termination date (as set forth in Section  9.1(a)), unless an Indemnified Party shall have made a claim for indemnification pursuant to Section  9.2 or Section 9.3, subject to the terms and conditions of this ARTICLE IX (or Section 6.8(d), as applicable), prior to such survival termination date, as applicable, including by delivering an Indemnification Claim Notice or Third Party Indemnification Claim, as applicable, to the Indemnifying Party. Notwithstanding anything herein to the contrary, if an Indemnified Party has made a claim for indemnification pursuant to Section 9.2 or Section  9.3 and delivered an Indemnification Claim Notice or Third Party Indemnification Claim, as applicable, to the Indemnifying Party prior to such survival termination date, then such claim (and only such claim), if then unresolved, shall not be extinguished by the passage of the deadlines set forth in Section  9.1(a).^[12]

Remember, as transactional lawyers, we need to be continuously learning and remembering what we have learned. There is more to the practice than just being a document processor.

1. Bidwell Fam. Corp. v. Shape Corp., 2024 WL 5262944, at n.15 (S.D. Ohio Dec. 31, 2024) (quoting APA § 9.01). ↑

2. See GRT, Inc. v. Marathon GTF Tech., Ltd., 2011 WL 2682898, at *11–13 (Del. Ch. July 11, 2011). ↑

3. 2024 WL 5262944. ↑

4. Bear Stearns Mortg. Funding Trust 2006–SL1 v. EMC Mortg. LLC, 2015 WL 139731, at *14 (Del. Ch. Jan. 12, 2015). For those interested in the merger doctrine as applied to real estate transactions, see Peter E. Fisch & Salvatore Gogliormella, Applying Merger Doctrine to Contracts for Sale of Real Estate, N.Y. L.J. (July 30, 2024). ↑

5. Bidwell, 2024 WL 5262944, at *12. ↑

6. Id. at *13. ↑

7. Id. (emphasis added by court) (citations omitted). ↑

8. E.g., Glenn D. West, Follow the Entire Playbook to Disclaim Reliance upon Extra-Contractual Statements, Bus. L. Today (Oct. 3, 2024). ↑

9. See Glenn D. West, There Is More to a Choice-of-Law Clause Than Filling in the Name of the Selected State, Weil’s Glob. Priv. Equity Watch (June 30, 2021). ↑

10. See Will Pugh, Getting What You Bargained For: Avoiding Legal Uncertainty in Survival Clauses for a Seller’s Representations and Warranties in M&A Purchase Agreements, 12 J. Bus. Entrepreneurship & L. 1 (2019). ↑

11. Equity Purchase Agreement, dated December 22, 2024, by and among Xerox Corporation, Lexmark International II, LLC, and Ninestar Group Company Limited, Section 10.1. ↑

12. Asset Purchase Agreement, dated December 19, 2024, between WiSA Technologies, Inc., a Delaware corporation, and CompuSystems, Inc., an Illinois corporation, Section 9.1. ↑

Legal departments are positioned to become as essential to business success as research and development, sales, marketing, human resources, and finance. As companies grapple with evolving, complex compliance requirements and emerging technologies, a robust legal operations function can transform legal departments from perceived cost centers and bottlenecks into strategic business partners.

The Evolution of Legal Operations

Legal departments of a generation ago primarily focused on risk management and controlling outside counsel spend. As business became increasingly global and complex, regulatory requirements and legal challenges multiplied in scope and complexity. Attorneys began working more with other professionals like statisticians, accountants, financial analysts, subject matter experts, and jury consultants. Some honed their skills in project management, while others pursued expertise in legal technology and data science, with e-discovery on the front line of it all.

Savvy legal professionals recognized that incorporating emerging technologies and business principles could dramatically improve their efficiency and sophistication. Over time, these trailblazers realized that achieving the correct combination of people, processes and technology was a comprehensive discipline that could be a force multiplier for attorneys tasked with doing more with less. The idea of running a legal department as a business became known as legal operations. Today, legal operations professionals bring critical expertise in strategic planning, change management, and financial oversight to legal practice. 

Risk and Transformation

Corporate legal departments face complicated regulatory compliance requirements, and the acceleration of digital transformation has created new risk categories such as data privacy, algorithmic bias, and cybersecurity threats. Data management has evolved from a technical administrative issue into a strategic legal imperative due to privacy regulations such as Europe’s General Data Protection Regulation (“GDPR”) and the California Consumer Privacy Act (“CCPA”). The rise of generative artificial intelligence presents both opportunities and compliance challenges.

Four key strategic areas demonstrate how legal operations can improve legal departments by placing responsibility for many of the nonlegal aspects of their operations with professionals experienced, focused, and equipped to handle them. This allows company attorneys to narrow their attention to understanding the business and its goals and providing strategic legal counsel in service of achieving those goals while minimizing legal risks.

1. Business Intelligence: Speaking the Language of Data
   Legal departments comfortable with collecting and interpreting vast amounts of data across their functions use metrics to identify trends such as areas of inefficiency or expensive cost centers to address. Indeed, the value of data intelligence is gaining recognition throughout the legal community. Proficiency in this area allows legal departments to identify and address emerging risks, quantify the department’s impact on business objectives, demonstrate value through metrics that resonate with business leaders, and leverage predictive analytics to proactively manage risk.
2. Strategic Planning: Going from Reactive to Proactive
   Long-term planning allows legal departments to better understand their role in the company’s success and gain recognition for their contributions. Establishing strategic plans helps legal teams align activities with company-wide goals, anticipate needs based on business growth trajectories, and shift from crisis response mode to strategic risk management.
3. Service Delivery Models: Optimizing for Business Speed
   By building relationships with legal service providers beyond traditional law firms and strategically leveraging the right mix of talent and technology, legal departments can confidently direct work to the optimal resources when opportunities and challenges arise. Proactively designing flexible service delivery models allows legal teams to identify cost-effective, scalable, and efficient approaches for routine legal needs. Once implemented, bespoke service models let attorneys focus on providing high-value strategic guidance to the business rather than staying buried in repetitive tasks.
4. Technology: Enabling Business at Scale
   By leveraging technology with appropriate guardrails, legal departments can strategically deploy artificial intelligence (“AI”) to help with tasks in regulatory compliance, contract analysis, and due diligence. AI tools can be trained to assist with specific workflows, such as identifying and summarizing regulatory updates and updating relevant policies and controls, or monitoring high-risk customer profiles and transactions and conducting due diligence to comply with anti-money-laundering regulations. No-code automation and contract life cycle management solutions can support self-service tools for high-volume, low-risk agreements like nondisclosure agreements. As legal departments explore deploying AI-enabled solutions, they should develop robust policies, processes, and oversight frameworks that include validation, independent verification of output, and appropriate security protocols to ensure lawyers’ ethical transition from an execution oversight role to a strategic advisory one.

Achieving Strategic Partnership

To serve as a true strategic business partner, legal departments should prioritize:

• proactively identifying emerging risks and opportunities before they impact the business
• efficiently scaling legal services in alignment with business growth
• building scalable frameworks that allow for quick, consistent decision-making across the organization
• leading strategic initiatives in critical areas such as privacy, cybersecurity, and AI governance

When legal operations functions successfully implement these four key strategies, attorneys shift from reactive problem-solving to proactive business guidance. This transition provides them the time to gain a deeper understanding of their business units’ goals and the ability to more strategically counsel on the advancement of those objectives while managing risk.

The Future of Legal Operations

Integrating legal operations within a legal department requires investment in the right mix of people, processes, and technology. Change management expertise is critical to driving adoption both within the legal department and across the business departments that interact with legal. Legal operations leaders must understand both emerging technologies and traditional legal processes. Ideally, they have a solid commitment to continuous improvement and innovation, change management experience, tenacity, and the gravitas to manage changes across the organization effectively. 

Mastering emerging technologies to meet regulatory requirements and to facilitate the legal department guiding the business through legal risks remains a key component of legal operations. AI-powered tools promise to revolutionize compliance monitoring, contract management, due diligence, and more. At the same time, these advances bring new challenges in AI governance, algorithm bias detection, and ethical technology deployment, to name a few.

When leveraging new technology, including generative AI tools, legal teams must first gain a reasonable understanding of the technology and ensure that appropriate safeguards are in place, including implementing robust processes for oversight and error correction and upholding ethical obligations around data confidentiality, client communications, and security. Proactively addressing these areas allows legal departments to maintain control, accuracy, and professional responsibilities when harnessing the power of technology in creating efficient workflows.

Building Community and Standards

Various legal operations communities and organizations have formed as the area has matured. The Corporate Legal Operations Consortium (“CLOC”), LegalOps.com, Legal Data Intelligence, and others help define the industry, provide a community for professional collaboration, and set industry standards. These communities are increasingly focused on developing frameworks for data privacy standards, AI governance, and cybersecurity best practices, and they can be valuable resources for the legal operations community.

Adding a robust legal operations function to a legal department empowers the business to navigate the complex, technology-driven business landscape of today. By transforming legal from a cost center to a strategic partner, legal operations helps an enterprise to proactively manage risk, responsibly harness new technologies, and stay ahead of evolving compliance requirements. In an era of unprecedented change, the legal department’s ability to adapt and lead is not just a marker of success but a competitive necessity. Prescient organizations that invest in legal operations capabilities position themselves for long-term, sustainable growth.